Geography - GIS

Modern Geography Human Geography, Nature/Society, and Regional Geography (GEOG) GEOG 501 Principles of Geography -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: graduate standing, member of the Teacher Education Program, and permission of department. Introduction to human and physical geography. Open to students who have never had a college level geography course. GEOG 621 Geography of the United States -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: graduate standing, member of the Teacher Education Program, and permission of department. A regional analysis of the major features of the natural and cultural environment of the United States. Not open to students who have had a similar college-level course. GEOG 621.51 Geography of New York State -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: graduate standing, member of the Teacher Education Program, and permission of department. An analysis of the major features of the natural and cultural environment of New York State. Topics include sequence settlement, land use, economic and social interrelationships with the natural environment, and environmental problems. Not open to students who have had a similar college-level course. GEOG 701 Geographic Thought and Theory -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Evening/Fall only. Identification of research trends; major schools of thought; scientific method and exceptionalism; reviews of current research. GEOG 701.54 Geographic Research Design -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Topics include conceptualization and operationalization of a research design with specific focus on data specification and data gathering techniques. Quantitative and qualitative methods are reviewed. A key product is the development of a detailed research proposal. GEOG 702 Research Topics in Geography -- 15 hrs including conference, 1 cr. Evening/Fall only. Introduction to central research themes in geography and the current research being undertaken by department faculty. GEOG 703 Location Theory and Spatial Analysis -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: GEOG 221 or GEOG 341 or equivalent. Spatial interaction; diffusion; development; decision making. Methods of spatial analysis; spatial modeling. GEOG 704 Topics in Human Geography -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Studies of specialized areas with human geography. May be repeated for credit as topics change. GEOG 705 Cultural and Social Geography -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: GEOG 341 and GEOG 347 or permission of instructor. Review of recent work in cultural and social geography; emphasis on literature, critiques. GEOG 705.28 Introduction to Environmental Ethics -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Pending Senate approval. Do animals have rights? Do ecosystems have interests? Are humans separate from the environment? How have the answers to these questions been shaped by scientific understanding and religious belief? How should they be? The development of environmental philosophies and ethics, and how they have interacted with controversial environmental issues, will be explored. Reding assignments include canonical and contemporary philosophers as well as environmentalists. In additional to theory, we will discuss the applications of these ideas in local to global environmental problems. The course will focus on ethical philosophies from the western world, but non-western philosophies might also be discussed. GEOG 705.62 Post-Socialist Geographies -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: GEOG 278 or permission of instructor. Pending Senate approval. For graduate students in geography, anthropology, economics, sociology, environmental psychology and other related fields. This course examines major political, economic, and social theories that aim to explain the current transformations in post-socialist countries. The neo-liberal theories and policies of transition to capitalism and their consequences are critically examined. The devastating effects of capitalism uncontrolled by democratic governments and labor are discussed. GEOG 705.72 GIS Law -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: one course in GIS or permission of instructor. This course in geographic information systems law will acquaint students with legal issues raised by GIS. The course is organized to confront legal issues in the order that they might arise during the life cycle of a typical GIS Project. GEOG 706 Latin Americanist Geography -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Major paradigms, theories and methodologies in geographic research on Latin America including historical, cultural, social, economic, urban, physical, and environmental geography. GEOG 708 The Geographies of Urban Space -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: graduate standing and GEOG 701 or GEOG 743 or equivalent or permission of instructor. Critical perspectives on urban development and internal urban space. Latest literature in urban political economy, feminist, and post-structuralist geography with a focus on class, gender and ethnicity in urban space. GEOG 709 Geography of Selected World Regions -- 45 hours including conference, 3 cr. Intensive examination of physical and social geography of specific world regions. (Each semester one or two regions will be covered. Field courses may be offered during intersession periods.) GEOG 709.57 Regional Geography of the New York Metropolitan Area -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Pending Senate approval. Geographic basis of the development and functioning of the NYC metropolitan area. Physical site and situation; spatial aspects of its political, social and economic structures. GEOG 710 Economic Geography -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Interactions between people and the natural environment on economic, political and cultural endeavors. Formation of labor markets and their segmentation by class, gender, and ethnicity/race. Change in production systems and economic globalization. Interconnections between economic systems across local, regional, national, and international scales. GEOG 711 Environmental Conservation -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Interrelationship of natural systems; environmental crisis; environmental movement; specific problem areas. GEOG 711.56 Coastal Zone Management -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Pending Senate approval. The increasing pressure on the coast is demonstrated with competing demand that leads to conflicts with respect to the carrying capacity of our most precious resource area. The course addresses critical issues related to environmental constraints, the carrying capacity of coastal areas and the need for coastal zone management. GEOG 712 Geography of Sustainable Development in Developing Countries -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: graduate standing and one course focusing on development of a developing region, or permission of instructor. Analysis of factors that influence sustainable development, e.g., available resources, environment, population, food producation, water supply in developing countries. GEOG 713 Rural Water Supply in Developing Regions -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: graduate standing and one course focusing on development of a developing region, or permission of instructor. Quality, problems, management, and sustainability of rural water supply and sanitation in developing countries. GEOG 715 International Pollution Issues -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Global environmental hazards are covered. Issues ranging from intergovernmental efforts to document pollution, to the policy needed to curtail pollution of the future will be addressed. A focus will be on transboundary air and water pollution. GEOG 721 Transporation Geography -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. A geographic study and modeling of transporation routes and their influences on the location of economic activity. GEOG 732.54 GIS Technology, Science, and Society -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: graduate standing and one course in GIS or permission of instructor. Pending Senate approval. Critical evaluation of GIS technology from critical geographic, feminist, and post-structuralist perspectives. Students will be exposed to a wide range of literature known as science and technology studies and "Critical GIS." It focuses on social construction of technology and GIS more specifically, including the technology itself, the effect of institutional context, social manipulations of GIS, its contradictions, and possibilities beyond mainstream approach. GEOG 741 Population Geography -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Theoretical and empirical analyses of spatial distribution of population. Particular emphasis is on processes and impacts of migration, residential mobility, and immigration. GEOG 742 International Migration & Ethnicity -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Examination of historic and contemporary international migration patterns. Spatial demographic impacts of immigration policy in the United States with a focus on major urban centers. Comparative analyses of ethnic and racial minorities in the United States. GEOG 743 Urban Geographic Theory -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Spatial analysis of contemporary and theoretical issues concerning the economic growth, transportation, land use, social segregation, and urban governance in metropolitan areas. GEOG 772 Field Work in Peru -- one month summer intersession in Peru, 3 cr. Prereq: permission of department. Regional field study of the geography of Peru. Topics include physical, environmental, historical, cultural, urban, political, agricultural, religious, and economic geographies in various ecological zones. Taught in English. Acceptance into Hunter College Study Abroad Program and fee for transportation, accommodations required. GEOG 791, 792, 793 Independent Research in Geography -- 1, 2, or 3 cr. Prereq: permission of instructor or graduate adviser. Intensive individual research in geography under supervision of a member of the graduate faculty. May be repeated for a maximum of 6 credits with permission of the graduate adviser. GEOG 799 Thesis Research in Geography -- 1-6 cr. Prereq: GEOG 701 and permission of department. Open to students electing the thesis option only. May be repeated for credit but only one credit may be applied to satisfy degree requirements. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Geographic Techniques and Methods (GTECH) GTECH 702 Multivariate Statistics in Geography -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: Introductory Statistics or equivalent or permission of instructor. Multivariate analysis of spatial data; prediction, analysis, and explanation of spatial and environmental phenomena; statistical software packages; lab exercises. GTECH 703.XX Special Topics in Quantitative Methods -- 45-75 hours including conference , 2-4 cr. Prereq: GTECH 701 and GTECH 702 or equivalent or permission of department. Advanced work on topics related to quantitative methods. GTECH 703.56 Applied Statistics in Hydrology -- Pending Senate approval. This course is designed as an applied, group research project for graduate students. It will be given on an irregular basis, and will be a reseach project based on a current problem. The goal of the course is to write an article of publishable quality. The prerequisites will vary depending on the problem being studied, but will usually include two courses: (1) either hydrology, climatology, or a similar course; and (2) multivariate statistics in geography, or a similar course. GTECH 704 Seminar in Spatial Modeling -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: GTECH 701 or equivalent or permission of instructor. Development of advanced spatial models; in-depth consideration of specific topics; statistical modeling, mathematical modeling, computer modeling, and simulation. GTECH 704.52 Introduction to Environmenal Modeling -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Pending Senate approval. Introduction to the techniques and vocabulary of numerical modeling of environmental systems using differential equations. Focus on systems dynamics. GTECH 705 Spatial Data Analysis -- 60 hours including conference (2 lec, 2 lab), 3 cr. Prereq: one course in statistics. Either one course in mapping science or GIS, or permission of instructor. Methods for analyzing environmental and social spatial data sets. Topics include point pattern analysis, spatial clustering methods, spatial autocorrelation, and kriging. GTECH 710 Introduction to GIS -- 60 hours including conference (2 lec, 2 lab), 3 cr. Thorough introduction to geographic information systems with an emphasis on spatial data handling and project management. GTECH 711 Earth From Above -- 60 hrs including conference (2 lec, 2 lab weekly), 3 cr. Prereq: GTECH 710 or permission of instructor. Use and interpretation of air photos and satellite remote sensing images as applied to agriculture, forestry, urbanization, oceanography and atmosphere; lab exercises. GTECH 712 Remote Sensing of Environment -- 60 hrs including conference (2 lec, 2 lab weekly), 3 cr. Prereq: GTECH 711 or permission of instructor. Fundamental concepts of remote sensing of environment, satellite sensor systems and their applications, and basic concepts of image analysis. GTECH 713 Digital Image Processing -- 90 hrs including conference (2 lec, 4 lab weekly), 4 cr. Prereq: GTECH 712, multivariate statistics, elementary linear algebra. Quantitative processing of digital imagery; enhancement, information extraction, classification; algorithms, registration, rectification; lab exercises. GTECH 714 Special Topics in Remote Sensing -- 45-90 hrs including conference, 2-4 cr. Advanced work on topics in remote sensing; may be repeated for credit; lab work. Prerequisite and lecture/lab mix to vary with topic. GTECH 715 Seminar in Remote Sensing -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: GTECH 712; GTECH 713 recommended. Examination and discussion of current published research work in remote sensing. Topic to vary with instructor and student interest. GTECH 721 Advanced Cartography -- 105 hrs including conference (1 lec, 6 lab weekly), 4 cr. Prereq: GTECH 710 or equivalent. Acquisition of professional-level skills in manual cartography; production and photographic methods; scribing; color separations; use of automated techniques; lab exercises. GTECH 722 Automated Cartography -- 75 hrs including conference (1 lec, 4 lab weekly), 3 cr. Prereq: GTECH 710 or equivalent. Computer and other automated applications; theory and algorithms; production of computer-generated maps; lab exercises. GTECH 723.XX Seminar in Cartographic Research -- 45 hrs including conference, 3 cr. Prereq: GTECH 721, GTECH 722, or GTECH 731. Development of cart GIS What is GIS? INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS STUDY GUIDE EXAM #1 FALL 2009 (Chapters 1-3 and 9 from Introduction to Geographical Information Systems; Classroom Assignments 1-3; and ArcGIS Workbook Exercises 1-4) The following are topics, concepts, and terms that you should be able to define, identify and describe: Geographic Information System – definitions History of GIS – what was the origination of GIS? Why? Coordinate Systems – what kind are there? Projections – what are these? How do they affect the display of data in a map? Datums – what are these? How do we use them in GIS? Examples of applications and uses of GIS Limitations of a paper map What is georeferenced data? Vector Data Model vs Raster Data Model? What’s the difference? What is topology and how does it work in GIS? What’s the difference between spatial and non-spatial data? Feature or attribute? Components of geographic data, spatial data, Why Use a GIS? GIS vs. CAD vs. DBMS vs. Computer Mapping Data Formats and Sources: What are sources of GIS data? How can data be collected and stored for GIS? What is photogrammetry, COGO, Trace vs Heads-up Digitizing, GPS data collection? Map Document Storage – how does ArcView ‘store’ your project? What are some of the advantages/disadvantages of this storage? Basic Computer terms: bits vs bytes, Programming languages (C, Basic, etc.), DOS, RAM, ROM. Temporary data storage devices vs permanent data storage devices. Geographic Information Systems as an Integrating Technology Table on context Intro to GIS Intro to ArcGIS software ArcGIS Document Storage GIS Basics Coordinate Systems, Datums and Projectio Data Formats and Sources Data Management, Part 1 Data Management, Part 2 Data Sources; Inputs and Outputs Remote Sensing Data Quality Making a Map in GIS GIS and Cartography GIS Analysis Functions GIS and GPS Legal and Ethical Issues in GIS Implementing a GIS • GIS Analysis Functions 1. Spatial Data Functions o Format Transformations o Geometric Transformations o Projection Transformations o Conflation o Edge-matching o Editing Functions o Line Coordinate Thinning 2. Attribute Data Functions o Retrieval o Classification o Verification 3. Integrated Analysis of Spatial and Attribute Data o Overlay o Neighborhood Function o Point-in-Polygon and Line-In-Polygon o Topographic Functions o Thiessen Polygon o Interpolation 4. Cartographic Modeling 5. Connectivity Functions 6. Output Functions GIS - WIKI A revised definition of GIS GIS lecture1-2 and all links Database models Creating a database GIS database applications Developments in databases Data input and editing Methods of data input Data editing Towards an integrated database Data analysis Learning outcomes Introduction Measurements in GIS – lengths, perimeters and areas Queries Reclassification Buffering and neighbourhood functions Integrating data – map overlay Spatial interpolation Analysis of surfaces Network analysis Analytical modelling in GIS Process models Modelling physical and environmental processes Modelling human processes Modelling the decision-making process Problems with using GIS to model spatial processes Output: from new maps to enhanced decisions Maps as output Non-cartographic output Spatial multimedia Mechanisms of delivery GIS and spatial decision support Introducing to GIS lecture1 HISTORY OF GIS HISTORY OF GIS • A. INTRODUCTION • B. HISTORIC USE OF MULTIPLE THEME MAPS • C. EARLY COMPUTER ERA • D. CANADA GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (CGIS) • Purpose • Technological innovations • Key innovative ideas in CGIS • Key individual • E. HARVARD LABORATORY • The Harvard packages • Key individuals • F. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS • DIME files • Urban atlases • G. ESRI • REFERENCES This unit provides a very brief review of some important milestones in the development of GIS. Of course, it is likely there are some important stages we have omitted. It is perhaps a little too early yet to get a good perspective on the history of GIS. UNIT 23 - HISTORY OF GIS A. INTRODUCTION • development of GIS was influenced by: o key groups, companies and individuals o timely development of key concepts • content of this unit is concerned with North America • outside North America, significant developments occurred at the Experimental Cartography Unit in the UK o history of this group has been documented by Rhind (1988) • this unit draws on a preliminary "genealogy of GIS" assembled in 1989 by Donald Cooke of Geographic Data Technologies Inc. B. HISTORIC USE OF MULTIPLE THEME MAPS • idea of portraying different layers of data on a series of base maps, and relating things geographically, has been around much longer than computers o maps of the Battle of Yorktown (American Revolution) drawn by the French Cartographer Louis-Alexandre Berthier contained hinged overlays to show troop movements o the mid-19th Century "Atlas to Accompany the Second report of the Irish Railway Commissioners" showed population, traffic flow, geology and topography superimposed on the same base map o Dr. John Snow used a map showing the locations of death by cholera in central London in September, 1854 to track the source of the outbreak to a contaminated well - an early example of geographical analysis C. EARLY COMPUTER ERA • several factors caused a change in cartographic analysis: o computer technology - improvements in hardware, esp. graphics o development of theories of spatial processes in economic and social geography, anthropology, regional science o increasing social awareness, education levels and mobility, awareness of environmental problems • integrated transportation plans of 1950s and 60s in Detroit, Chicago o required integration of transportation information - routes, destinations, origins, time o produced maps of traffic flow and volume • University of Washington, Department of Geography, research on advanced statistical methods, rudimentary computer programming, computer cartography, most active 1958-611: o Nystuen - fundamental spatial concepts - distance, orientation, connectivity o Tobler - computer algorithms for map projections, computer cartography o Bunge - theoretical geography - geometric basis for geography - points, lines and areas o Berry''s Geographical Matrix of places by characteristics (attributes) - regional studies by overlaying maps of different themes - systematic studies by detailed evaluation of a single layer D. CANADA GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (CGIS) • Canada Geographic Information System is an example of one of the earliest GISs developed, started in the mid ''60''s • is a large scale system still operating today • its development provided many conceptual and technical contributions Purpose • to analyze the data collected by the Canada Land Inventory (CLI) and to produce statistics to be used in developing land management plans for large areas of rural Canada • the CLI created maps which: o classify land using various themes: soil capability for agriculture recreation capability capability for wildlife (ungulates) capability for wildlife (waterfowl) forestry capability present land use shoreline o were developed at map scales of 1:50,000 o use a simple rating scheme, 1 (best) to 7 (poorest), with detailed qualification codes, e.g. on soils map ____________________ 1see pages 62-66 in Johnston, R.J., 1983. Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human Geography since 1945, 2nd edition, Edward Arnold (Publishers), London. may indicate bedrock, shallow soil, alkaline conditions • product of CLI was 7 primary map layers, each showing area objects with homogeneous attributes o other map layers were developed subsequently, e.g. census reporting zones • perception was that computers could perform analyses once the data had been input Technological innovations • CGIS required the development of new technology o no previous experience in how to structure data internally o no precedent for GIS operations of overlay, area measurement o experimental scanner had to be built for map input • very high costs of technical development o cost-benefit studies done to justify the project were initially convincing o major cost over-runs o analysis behind schedule • by 1970 project was in trouble o failure to deliver promised tabulations, capabilities • completion of database, product generation under way by mid 1970s o main product was statistical summaries of the area with various combinations of themes o later enhancement allowed output of simple maps • CGIS still highly regarded in late 1970s, early 1980s as center of technological excellence despite aging of database o attempts were made to adapt the system to new data o new functionality added, especially networking capability and remote access o however, this was too late to compete with the new vendor products of 1980s Key innovative ideas in CGIS overhead - Key ideas in CGIS • use of scanning for input of high density area objects o maps had to be redrafted (scribed) for scanning o note: scribing is as labor intensive as digitizing • vectorization of scanned images • geographical partitioning of data into "map sheets" or "tiles" but with edgematching across tile boundaries • partitioning of data into themes or layers • use of absolute system of coordinates for entire country with precision adjustable to resolution of data o number of digits of precision can be set by the system manager and changed from layer to layer • internal representation of line objects as chains of incremental moves in 8 compass directions rather than straight lines between points (Freeman chain code) • coding of area object boundaries by arc, with pointers to left and right area objects o first "topological" system with planar enforcement in each layer, relationships between arcs and areas coded in the database • separation of data into attribute and locational files o "descriptor dataset" (DDS) and "image dataset" (IDS) o concept of an attribute table • implementation of functions for polygon overlay, measurement of area, user-defined circles and polygons for query Key individual • Roger Tomlinson, now with Tomlinson Associates, Ottawa E. HARVARD LABORATORY • full name - Harvard Laboratory For Computer Graphics And Spatial Analysis • Howard Fisher, moved from Chicago to establish a lab at Harvard, initially to develop general-purpose mapping software - mid 1960s • Harvard Lab for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis had major influence on the development of GIS until early 1980s, still continues at smaller scale • Harvard software was widely distributed and helped to build the application base for GIS • many pioneers of newer GIS "grew up" at the Harvard lab The Harvard packages overhead - The Harvard packages • SYMAP o developed as general-purpose mapping package beginning in 1964 o output exclusively on line printer  poor resolution, low quality o limited functionality but simple to use  a way for the non-cartographer to make maps o first real demonstration of ability of computers to make maps o sparked enormous interest in a previously unheard-of technology • CALFORM (late 1960s) o SYMAP on a plotter o user avoided double-coding of internal boundaries by inputting a table of point locations, plus a set of polygons defined by sequences of point IDs o more cosmetic than SYMAP - North arrows, better legends • SYMVU (late 1960s) o 3D perspective views of SYMAP output o first new form of display of spatial data to come out of a computer • GRID (late 1960s) o raster cells could be displayed using the same output techniques as SYMAP o later developed to allow multiple input layers of raster cells, beginnings of raster GIS o used to implement the ideas of overlay from landscape architecture and McHarg • POLYVRT (early 1970s) o converted between various alternative ways of forming area objects: SYMAP - every polygon separately, internal boundaries twice CALFORM - table of point locations plus lists of IDs DIME - see below o motivated by need of computer mapping packages for flexible input, transfer of boundary files between systems, growing supply of data in digital form, e.g. from Bureau of the Census • ODYSSEY (mid 1970s) o extended POLYVRT idea beyond format conversion to a comprehensive analysis package based on vector data o first robust, efficient algorithm for polygon overlay - included sliver removal Key individuals • Howard Fisher - initiated Lab, development of SYMAP • William Warntz - succeeded Fisher as Director until 1971, developed techniques, theories of spatial analysis based on computer handling of spatial data • Scott Morehouse - move to ESRI was key link between ODYSSEY and the development of ARC/INFO • see Chrisman (1988) for additional information on the Lab and its key personnel F. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS • need for a method of assigning census returns to correct geographical location o address matching to convert street addresses to geographic coordinates and census reporting zones o with geographic coordinates, data could be aggregated to user-specified custom reporting zones • need for a comprehensive approach to census geography o reporting zones are hierarchically related o e.g. enumeration districts nest within census tracts • 1970 was the first geocoded census • DIME files were the major component of the geocoding approach DIME files • precursor to TIGER, urban areas only • coded street segments between intersections using o IDs of right and left blocks o IDs of from and to nodes (intersections) o x,y coordinates o address ranges on each side • this is essentially the arc structure of CGIS and the internal structure (common denominator format) of POLYVRT • DIME files were very widely distributed and used as the basis for numerous applications • topological ideas of DIME were refined into TIGER model o planar enforcement o 0-, 1- and 2-cell terminology • DIME, TIGER were influential in stimulating development work on products which rely on street network databases o automobile navigation systems o driver guides to generate text driving instructions (e.g. auto rental agencies) o garbage truck routing o emergency vehicle dispatching Urban atlases • beginning with the 1970 census • production of "atlases" of computer-generated maps for selected census variables for selected cities • demonstrated the value of simple computer maps for marketing, retailing applications o stimulated development of current range of PC-based statistical mapping packages • based on use of digital boundary files produced by the Bureau G. ESRI • Jack Dangermond founded Environmental Systems Research Institute in 1969 based on techniques, ideas being developed at Harvard Lab and elsewhere • 1970s period of slow growth based on various raster and vector systems • early 1980s release of ARC/INFO o successful implementation of CGIS idea of separate attribute and locational information o successful marriage of standard relational database management system (INFO) to handle attribute tables with specialized software to handle objects stored as arcs (ARC) - a basic design which has been copied in many other systems o "toolbox", command-driven, product-oriented user interface  modular design allowed elaborate applications to be built on top of toolbox • ARC/INFO was the first GIS to take advantage of new super-mini hardware o GIS could now be supported by a platform which was affordable to many resource management agencies o emphasis on independence from specific platforms, operating systems • initial successes in forestry applications, later diversification to many GIS markets o expansion to $40 million company by 1988 REFERENCES Special issue of The American Cartographer Vol 15(3), 1988, on the digital revolution in cartography - contains articles on the Harvard Lab, UK Experimental Cartography Unit, and the history of GIS. Tomlinson, R.F., 1987. "Current and potential uses of geographical information systems," The North American experience. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 1:203-18. Reviews GIS from beginnings to 1987, and summarizes lessons learned. DATA MANAGEMENT MapProjection DATA MANAGEMENT AND LECTURE3 STATISTICAL PACKAGES offer a range of types of statistical analysis data is primarily numerical may include: database functions, such as editing, printing reports capabilities for graphic output, particularly graphs but many also produce maps common mainframe packages are SAS, SPSS, BMD available over a wide range of operating systems some have been "ported" to (rewritten for) the IBM PC numerous other packages have been developed specifically for the PC DOS environment S is a commonly available statistical package for UNIX INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS A. INTRODUCTION the environment in which a GIS operates is defined by: hardware - the machinery, including: a host computer ranging from a stand-alone microcomputer to a large mainframe supporting many users several devices for handling input and output software the programs that tell the computer what to do the data the programs will use this unit provides a brief overview of computer hardware and software so that students will have a basic understanding of how computers operate and will recognize some of the common computer terminology important topics are covered in greater detail in later units B. COMPUTER DATA computer data is coded, manipulated and stored by use of an exclusive two-state condition in English such two-state forms of information can include yes/no, on/off, open/closed, hole/no hole in simple electronic terms this two-state condition can be translated for the computer into "switch open/switch closed", meaning that "there is electricity passing through the circuit/there is no electricity passing through the circuit" note that one of the two exclusive states always exists if one switch provides two different datum, how much data can we obtain from two switches? four - there are four combinations of open and closed switches Binary notation in computer terminology, this two state condition is represented in binary notation by the use of 1s and 0s thus, two switches produce four codes - 00, 01, 10, 11 three switches produce eight codes - 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111 in mathematical terms: 1 binary digit provides 21 = 2 alternatives 2 binary digits provide 22 = 4 alternatives 3 binary digits provide 23 = 8 alternatives 8 binary digits provide 28 = 256 alternatives Bits and bytes each binary digit is called a bit the complexity of computer circuitry is described in terms of the number of bits that can be transmitted simultaneously this is determined by the number of wires that run parallel to one another on the circuit-boards current PCs use 8, 16 and 32 bit paths a group of 8 bits is called a byte bytes are the standard unit of measurement of computer data ASCII coding system to maximize efficiency, most computers store data in their own internal formats however, transfer of data requires the use of standard codes which are understood by all systems the most successful standard is ASCII (pronounced ass- key) ASCII originated well before computer communication as a code for Teletypes ASCII assigns the numbers 0 through 127 to 128 characters, including the upper and lower case alphabets, numerals 0 through 9 and various special characters 128 different patterns can be generated using 7 bits in different combinations of on and off any ASCII character can therefore be coded with 7 bits in practice, 8 bits (one byte) are used, the extra bit may be used to extend the code to 128 extra characters, or it simply may be redundant by using binary notation, these codes can be converted into decimal numbers counting from the right, the 8 bits are numbered 0 through 7, and signify as follows: Bit: 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 128s 64s 32s 16s 8s 4s 2s units e.g. the combination 01010101 is no 128s, one 64, no 32s, one 16, no 8s, one 4, no 2s and one unit i.e. 64+16+4+1 = 85 in the ASCII code system, code number 85 is an upper case U thus to store a U, the system stores a byte with the bit pattern 01010101 in ASCII, characters 0 through 32 often perform special functions e.g. character 7, 00000111, is the BEL character and rings a bell if received by many terminals or devices e.g. character 12, 00001100, is the FF character and produces a form feed (new page) if received by many printers computer files which contain information coded in ASCII are easily transferred and processed by different computers and programs such files are often called "ASCII" or "text" or "coded" files ASCII characters are the dominant basis for communication between different systems, and communication with peripherals files which are not ASCII are often coded in "binary" and generally can be processed or understood only by specific programs C. COMPUTER HARDWARE computers consist of several different hardware components Central processing unit (CPU) the central processing unit is the essential component of a computer because it is the part that executes the programs and controls the operation of all the hardware powerful computers may have several processors handling different tasks, although there will need to be one central processing unit controlling the flow of instructions and data through the subsidiary processors the CPUs of PCs are based on a series of processors or "chips" from Intel "PC" models use the 8088 (8 bit) "AT" models use the 80286 (8/16 bits) current high powered machines use the 80386 (full 16 bits) and 80486 the Macintosh CPUs are based on the 68000 series of chips from Motorola Memory memory stores input for and output from the CPU as well as the instructions that are followed by the CPU the amount stored is measured in bits, bytes, Kbytes (K, Kb, 103 bytes), Megabytes (Mb, 106 bytes), Gigabytes (Gb, 109), Terabytes (Tb, 1012) there are two kinds of memory: main memory (or internal or primary memory) is essential for the operation of the computer, all data and instructions must be in main memory first before it can be processed by the computer most costly memory in the form of microchips integrated with the computer''s central processor fastest access - any byte can be accessed equally rapidly (random access, hence it is called RAM) temporary - since data and instructions are stored in main memory as electrical voltages, power failures cause the loss of all data in main memory ranges from several hundred Kbytes for typical PC to many Megabytes for mainframes secondary memory (or auxiliary memory or secondary storage) is used for large, permanent or semi-permanent files GIS programs and data generally require very large amounts of storage data storage is covered after this overview of the components of computers Peripherals peripherals refer to all the other devices attached to computers that handle input and output input devices include keyboards, mice, trackballs, digitizers, disk drives output devices include screens, printers, plotters those devices important to GIS are examined in later units D. DATA STORAGE Storage media computers can use several different media for storing information needed to store both raw data and programs media differ by storage capacity speed of access permanency of storage mode of access cost Fixed disks most costly memory next to main/internal memory is fixed disk memory ranges from 10 Megabytes for typical PC to hundreds of Gigabytes in large "disk farms" random access but slower than internal memory permanent (i.e. does not disappear when power is turned off), though data can be erased and modified Dismountable devices dismountable devices can be removed for storage or shipping, include: floppy diskettes up to 1.44 Megabytes for PC - random access magnetic tapes tens of Megabytes for standard tape access is sequential, not random can take minutes to reach a particular set of data on the tape, depending on where it is stored optical compact disks (CDs) around 250 Megabytes per CD random access, but the delay in reaching a given item of data may be 1 second or more Volumes a volume is a single tape, CD, diskette or fixed disk, i.e. a physical unit of storage Files a file is a logical collection of data - a table, document, program, map many files can be stored on a single volume files are given names the rules for naming files vary among types of systems the computer operating system keeps track of files stored in a volume by using a table called a directory files are identified in the directory by name, size, date of creation and often type of contents files are often organized into subdirectories so that the user can group files under specific topics E. SOFTWARE Programs a program is a sequence of related instructions, performed one step at a time by the CPU to accomplish some task programs determine how computers respond to input, what will be displayed and output there are three types of programs: operating systems, language interpreters and compilers and applications programs Operating systems an operating system (OS) is the software which controls the operation of the computer from the moment it is turned on or "booted" the OS controls all input and output to and from the peripherals as well as the operation of other programs allows the user to work with and manage files without knowing specifically how the data is stored and retrieved in multi-user systems, operating systems manage user access to the processor and peripherals and schedule jobs common operating systems include: IBM PCs and clones use MS-DOS (often called DOS), although there is some movement to OS/2 UNIX (and similar operating systems such as AIX, XENIX) is the dominant operating system for workstations mainframes commonly use proprietary operating systems developed by their manufacturers - VMS on DEC''s VAX series, PRIMOS on Prime, CMS on IBM mainframes, etc. although functions performed by operating systems are similar, it can be very difficult to move files or software from one to another many software packages run under only one operating system, or have substantially different versions for different operating systems Compilers and languages since computers operate on electricity and binary operations, all instructions executed by computers must be provided to the CPU in machine code however, humans do not have to interact with computers at this level programs can be written in very specialized languages, called assemblers, which allow programmers to take advantage of the specific capabilities of particular machines by addressing the basic operations directly these languages are very cryptic and very difficult to use they are also system specific and cannot be transported from one type of computer to another most programs are created using standard high level languages such as C, Pascal, FORTRAN, BASIC which are common across most computer systems, from micro to mainframe such programs are referred to as source code these languages generally use English words and familiar mathematical structure a compiler is a program designed to convert a program written in a high level language to the machine instructions of a specific computing system or "platform" the output of a C compiler for the IBM PC has almost nothing in common with the output of a C compiler for a VAX mainframe although high level languages are generally used in the development of application packages such as GIS, it is normally compiled for specific platforms before distribution to the public this is done to protect the commercial interests of the developer Applications programs applications programs are programs used for all purposes other than performing operating system chores or writing other programs includes GIS, word processors, spreadsheets, statistics packages and graphics programs, airline reservation systems, payroll systems F. EDITORS AND WORD PROCESSORS are packages designed to modify or edit the contents of files are most often used to edit written text or programs editing and creation of files of numerical data is best done with the special purpose editors found in database packages or spreadsheets (see sections G and H) editors and word processors are increasingly WYSIWYG ("what you see is what you get") the screen shows a picture of the contents of the file at all times well-known word processors for the IBM PC include Wordstar, WordPerfect and Microsoft Word linkage to a printer is essential so that the user can obtain "hard copy" of a file''s contents many mainframes offer their users several editors unfortunately there is little standardization of editors an editor is the most important system to learn after the operating system it is difficult to make much effective use of a system without one G. DATABASES are packages designed to create, edit, manipulate and analyze data to be suitable for a database, the data must consist of records which provide information on individual cases, people, places, features, etc. each record may contain several fields each of which contains one item of information the number and interpretation of the fields must be constant for each class of records e.g. each record in the class of "streets" may contain fields for name, length, surface, type. field contents can be of many types - numeric or text, fixed or variable length there can be several classes of records in a database e.g. an airline reservation database might have the following classes of records and associated items: passengers: name, phone, flight numbers aircraft: type, registration number, number of seats crew: names of pilot, copilot, cabin crew, home city flight: number, departure and arrival times, aircraft Functions of a database creating and editing records, using customized screens printing reports (summarizes of groups of records), using customized report forms, including subtotals and totals selecting records based on user-specified rules updating records based on new information linking records, e.g. to determine arrival time for a passenger by linking the passenger''s record with the correct flight record Three types of database network, hierarchical and relational are different ways of modeling data within a database although all three are used, the relational model has been most successful within GIS it is discussed at length later in the course well-known relational database management systems (RDBMSs) include dBase, Oracle, Info many of these have been used in specific GISs many databases use the same language, SQL (Standard Query Language), for formulating queries H. SPREADSHEETS are systems which allow the user to work with numerical data in tabular form column and row totals, percentages etc. are automatically updated as data items are changed Lotus 1-2-3 is a well-known spreadsheet for the IBM PC I. STATISTICAL PACKAGES offer a range of types of statistical analysis data is primarily numerical may include: database functions, such as editing, printing reports capa Online Database OECD Extra PART I – Working with Legends (*.avl) • Community Boundary Layer (combdry)-open an existing legend By default, when you add combdry, the legend will load automatically because it is referenced to that layer/theme’s correct “values field” and has the same name as the parent layer/theme (combdry.avl). Several of the layers/themes found on the T: Drive already have legends associated with them (i.e. roads by surface type). There are also many outdated legends on the T: Drive that will be phased out in the future. • Incorporated Cities with Spheres of Influence (citysphere)-create a new legend To create a new legend, double-click on the layer/theme that you want to create a legend for. In the Legend Type drop-down box, choose the classification you want to use. For this case, choose Unique Value. Then, in the Values Field drop-down box, choose the correct field within the layer’s/theme’s attribute table that has the values that you want to display (this is when the metadata comes in handy). For this case, choose “Type”. ArcView will assign default colors to all of the unique values listed in the “Type” field. You can now change the symbols to your preference (i.e. change foreground and outline colors, add a pattern, etc.). Once you’re satisfied with the results, click Apply. If you want to save your legend so that you can use it for future projects, click Save and migrate to your directory where you want to save this legend file. It may be useful to have a directory setup before this so that you can remember where this file is located. If you cannot remember, you can always use the Search tool from the Start menu to find the file. For example, search for file name combdry.avl. • General Plan Boundaries (gplan)-load new legend depending on map purpose; to show all designations or combined designations • Zoning Boundaries (zoning)-load new legend depending on map purpose; to show all designations or combined designations By default, when you add either the zoning or general plan to a new project, ArcView will default to the combined designations legend because the .avl file has the same name (zoning or gplan) as the other files that make up the shapefile and it is referenced to the correct “Values Field”. If you have an existing project with these layers/themes, you must either load the new legends or add the layers/themes again to your ArcView project. To load an existing legend, double-click on the layer/theme that you want to find a legend for. The Legend Editor will open. Click load and migrate to the directory where the .avl file is located and pick the filename that is associated with the layer/theme. ArcView will prompt you to choose the correct “Values Field”. For the zoning layer/theme, use the “Grp_class” field if you want to load the zoning.avl file (this is the default); use the “Zoning” field if you want to load the 2 zoning_alldesig.avl (this will list all possible zoning designations). For the general plan layer/theme, use the “Grp_class” field if you want to load the gplan.avl file (this is the default); use the “Gpdes” field if you want to load the gplan_alldesig.avl (this will list all possible general plan designations). • Create your own legends for layers/themes you use often. Save the .avl files in your own directory. *When working with legends, you must become more familiar with the field names and what they describe within each layer/theme table. This is where comprehensive metadata helps. PART II – Transferring Shapefiles to your Computer • Benefits – significant speed enhancements when loading, viewing, querying, identifying layers/themes (esp. in some of the large files like parcels, aerial photos, digital topo maps, roads, etc.) • Drawbacks – every time the GIS Division makes updates to any of the GIS layers, you are responsible for updating to the new layer/theme information; it’s possible that you will not copy and paste all of the files correctly resulting in corrupt layers/themes. Files Associated with a Shapefile: *.dbf (shapefile attribute table file) *.shp (shapefile feature geometry storage file) *.shx (shapefile file lookup index storage file) *.sbn (spatial index for read-write shapefiles) – not always present *.sbx (spatial index for read-write shapefiles) – not always present *.prj (projections definition file) – not always present *.avl (legend template file) – not always present *.shp.xml (metadata associated with shapefile) – not always present *.ain (attribute index file) – not always present *.aih (attribute index file) – not always present * There are also *.apr files, which are the ArcView Project Files. If you decide to start saving files to your computer, setup a good directory structure so that you can remember where your files are. For those of you who have the GIS layers saved locally on your computer''s hard drive and the GIS Division makes updates to GIS data layers on the T: Drive, you need to follow the procedure as listed below. Otherwise, some of the files associated with each shapefile will become corrupt and you will experience problems viewing/using them in ArcView: So.... 1) Close all ArcView projects that are currently running on your computer. 2) Open Windows Explorer, migrate to the folder where you have your GIS data saved locally, Select and Delete all existing files associated with the old shapefile (i.e. the parcel layer) on your 3 drive (i.e. parcels.dbf, parcels.prj, parcels.shp, parcels.shp.xml, parcels.shx, and any other files that may be associated with the old shapefile). 3) Migrate to the T: Drive folder that has the updated shapefile (i.e the parcel layer), Select and Copy all files associated with the updated shapefile from the T: Drive (i.e. parcels.dbf, parcels.prj, parcels.shp, parcels.shp.xml, parcels.shx, and any other files that may be associated with the updated shapefile) and Paste these into your local GIS data folder. You must make sure to paste all associated files. 4) After successfully copying and pasting all of the files associated with the new shapefile, you can then open existing ArcView projects, and they will use the newly copied data from your hard drive. This process will work for all updated GIS shapefiles. Some shapefiles may have additional files associated with them (esp. if they have legends or projections, etc.), so always remember to copy and paste all files associated with each new GIS shapfile. In Windows Explorer, the first part of the file name will always be the same with different file extensions (i.e. parcels.x). PART III – Metadata • What is metadata? Literally, it’s information about data. It provides a common set of terminology, definitions, and information about values to be provided. They describe the "who, what, where, when, why, and how" of every aspect of the data. Must be continually maintained to aid in organization of internal investment of data and to provide information in data transfers to customers and users. Can be very brief or very detailed. • Located at T:DataMetadata. • Not all layers have metadata associated with them (it’s an ongoing process). To view metadata, simply double-click on one of the files (i.e. combdry.htm), this will open the file in your web browser. Scroll down to read more about the layer/theme that it’s describing. Most important components in the metadata are the overview descriptions or abstracts of the data (can describe the intent and scale of the data) and the descriptions of field values in each layer’s/theme’s attribute table. This can be very useful when determining what the coded fields mean in the attribute table of your layer/theme. Questions/Comments/ arcView training - https://docs.co.nevada.ca.us/dsweb/Get/Document-111059/Arcview%203.x%20Training-Legends,%20Transfer%20Shapefiles,%20&%20Metadata.pdf Using the ArcIMS HTML Viewer The basic functions you will be able to perform using the viewer include: Zooming in to an area and displaying specific information Database searches by a category or key word Measuring distances Creating a buffer zone around a feature Toolbar Usage To the right is a close-up view of options you may find on a toolbar. When a tool is selected from the toolbar menu, the button is highlighted with a red box indicating it is active. Normally, the "Zoom In" button is active when first opened. (See "Zoom In" Tool in the graphic to the right or the table below) Scroll down for more detail on each tool Filter Operations role of remoteness in lanscape character do slide role of remoteness in lanscape character role of remoteness in lanscape character potential application of remoteness mapping Data Imput Analysis http://educationally.narod.ru/linksgis33.html GIS in COLUMBIA http://educationally.narod.ru/gis101photoalbum.html Fundamental Raster GIS Procedures tutorial http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/gis/manual/raster/index.htm Data sources for GIS http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/sources/sources_f.html If documentation is limited, it is important for you to consider the following questions: What is the age of the data? Where did it come from? In what medium was it originally produced? What is the areal coverage of the data? To what map scale was the data digitized? What projection, coordinate system, and datum were used in maps? What was the density of observations used for its compilation? How accurate are positional and attribute features? Does the data seem logical and consistent? Do cartographic representations look "clean?" Is the data relevant to the project at hand? In what format is the data kept? How was the data checked? Why was the data compiled? What is the reliability of the provider? Municipal GIS http://www.peoplegis.com/municipalgis.html Municipal GIS Resources http://www.mass.gov/mgis/munigis.htm GIS for Land Data on Computer http://www.gerhardbechtold.com/LUPMIS/Manual/42_import_database.html Importing an .e00 (Arc Interchange) file in ArcGIS 9 - ArcToolbox http://soa.utexas.edu/crp/gis/arcgis_tips/e00_import.html Arc/Info coverages are often found in a format called .e00 or Arc Interchange format. For example, you might find a highways.e00 file available for download from a highway department web site. These kinds of files can be imported into ArcGIS using ArcToolbox. Once you have obtained an .e00 file, follow these steps. Note that the following requires that you have ArcInfo Workstation installed on your computer. If you have ArcView 9 only, you can use the Import71.exe file found in the ArcGIS/bin/ folder where the ArcGIS program is installed. Importing .e00 files using ArcToolbox with ArcInfo workstation installed: Before you start, note that this import tool does not deal well with folder paths that have space in their names (e.g., like "My Documents"). Therefore, prior to using this tool, you should create a new folder for that file in your C: drive. E.g., if I was importing a TxDot county file for Williamson County called urban246.e00, I should create a folder called williamson in the c:temp folder, and copy my urban246.e00 file to that folder. Start ArcToolbox by going to Start-Programs-ArcGIS-ArcToolbox Click on Coverage Tools - Conversion - To Coverage to see the list of available conversion tools From the tools you see, choose Import from Interchange File In the dialog box that appears, for Input file, navigate to the location of your .e00 file For output data set, navigate to the folder in which you want to place the newly imported file Press OK when you are ready - the process may take a few minutes. When the importing box goes away, the import should be compete. The new data set comes in two folders, an INFO folder and what is called a coverage folder (e.g., highways). You need both these folders for the data set to function properly. Use ArcCatalog if you move or copy the data to another location. Importing .e00 files using Import71.exe, ArcView 9: Before you start, note that this import tool does not deal well with folder paths that have space in their names (e.g., like "My Documents"). Therefore, prior to using this tool, you should create a new folder for that file in your C: drive. E.g., if I was importing a TxDot county file for Williamson County called urban246.e00, I should create a folder called williamson in the c:temp folder, and copy my urban246.e00 file to that folder. Locate the Import71.exe file - it should be in the C:arcgisbin folder (or use the Windows search tool to find it) Run the Import71.exe file by double-clicking on it - a dialog box should appear Browse to the location of your .e00 file and select that file and its directory path as the input file (e.g., c:tempbarbarawilliamsonurban246.e00) For your output file, simply specify the name you want for the newly imported file (e.g., txdot) - no directory path is needed, the file will import to the same location as the .e00 file Be patient - the import process may take 10 minutes or so. You will know when it is done because a small box saying Import Complete will appear over the Import71 dialog box. After you see the Import Complete notice, start ArcView again and check that the coverage displays properly. A "coverage" is an older GIS data format. ArcGIS Desktop Tips and Tutorials http://soa.utexas.edu/crp/gis/arcgis_tips/index.html ArcGIS Tutorials GIS Data Available for Download General - Working with Files Importing GIS data files Map and Layout Tips Data Creation and Manipulation Area calculations Raster (grid) data and analysis (including Digital Elevation Models - DEMs) Working with 3D data using 3D-Analyst GPS Resources and Instructions -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ArcGIS Tutorials ArcGIS 8.2 Basics Working with 2000 Census Data in ArcGIS and Census Tips General - Working with Files Decompressing files compressed with the WinZip utility To decompress with Aladdin Stuffit Expander, simply double-click on the file name (this program is installed on all the GIS computers in Sutton Lab) Importing GIS files Importing .e00 (Arc Interchange) files in ArcGIS 9.1 Map and Layout Tips Interactively labeling features of a layer so that they turn on and off with the layer Trouble Shooting Coordinate Systems in ArcMap Defining a Projection/Coordinate System Data Creation and Manipulation Creating a new shapefile in ArcGIS Creating a subset data set of a larger data set (for shape files only) Geocoding (address-matching) lists of addresses in ArcGIS Georeferencing digital images and scanned maps Attribute Tables Saving Excel files in dBase format Area Calculations Calculating Area, Perimeter and Length in ArcGIS (see also the Conversion Table for changing measurement units (Peter Wallin) Spatial (Raster Grid) Analysis Importing USGS Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data Working with x, y, and z units in Digital Elevation Models Everything You Want To Know About SDTS (from the GeoCommunity web site for tutorials, software utilities, etc., particularly related to DEMs in SDTS format) Experimental project: neighborhood boundary perception 3-D Analysis Creating a 3-D TIN with ArcGIS 3-D Analyst (do this as the first step to create a slope or aspect grid from contour line data) Creating and analysing layers http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.3/index.cfm?TopicName=Network_analysis_work_flow The layer properties dialog box http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.1/index.cfm?TopicName=The%20force%20element%20Layer%20Properties%20dialog%20box Tutorial 1: ArcGIS HSPF Preprocessing Tools http://www.crwr.utexas.edu/gis/gishydro06/WaterQuality/HSPF/tutorials/1-ToolInstallationAndDescription.htm An introduction in GIS:concepts, tools... http://teams.gemstone.umd.edu/classof2009/fastr/Jardine%20Article.pdf Introduction to Data Analysis http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresources/DD5740.html GIS Analysis Functions http://homepage.smc.edu/drake_vicki/GIS%20Analysis%20Functions%20(part%201).doc GIS Analysis Functions • GIS is distinguished from other Information Systems due to its spatial analysis functions • Spatial analysis functions are used to answer questions about the real world using GIS databases as a model of the real world GIS Analysis Functions • In order to make the most use of the information provided, the right questions must be asked GIS Analysis Functions Questions Categories: What are the data? What are the patterns in the data? What changes are possible in the data? Functions Categories: Storage and retrieval of data – Constrained query – modeling reality Answers Categories: Presentation of current data – Finding new pattern in data – Predicting new information from data GIS Analysis Functions • By defining the most important answers needed, appropriate questions and analysis methods can be created • Knowing how to combine functions in a GIS system can help produce an intelligent use of the available data • An unfortunate side effect of the computer generation, is the ability to produce worthless information (and very poor maps) at a rapid rate! GIS Analysis Functions • Spatial analysis techniques are an attempt to create an understandable image of reality. • In Basic Spatial Analysis, data may be analyzed at various levels. – Sorting data in attribute tables for presentation – Arithmetic, Boolean and statistical operations may be performed on attribute tables – New data may be compiled based on original and derived attributes or based on geographical relationships – Within each level, the operations used may be logical, arithmetic, geometric, statistical or a combination of any of these four types GIS Analysis Functions – Basic Spatial Analysis • Logic Operations – logical searches in databases normally use set algebra or Boolean algebra • Set Algebra – three operators: equal to, greater than, less than and combinations – The practical applications of these include: • Identifying attribute minima or maxima • Selection or isolation of particular values selected for a ranking in a thematic layer • Boolean Algebra: uses the AND, OR, NOR, and NOT operators to test for “True” or “False” – Venn diagrams – shaded area represent true statements GIS Analysis Functions • General Arithmetic Functions – performed on both attribute and geometric data • Operators include: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponential, square root, and trigonometric functions • Purposes for operations may include: – Reclassification of land use, or soil types – Conversion of distances along roads – Performing numerical operations on either quantitative or qualitative attribute data GIS Analysis Functions • Attribute data may also be processed to discern new patterns in the data • In the Classification Process, attributes are grouped according to limits set by user – For example: three classes may be set up for the attribute “year”: A = before 1990; B = 1991-1995; C = 1996-2000. – Each object with a “year” attribute is assigned a new year-class attribute of A, B or C GIS Analysis Functions • Reclassification involves changing attribute values without altering geometries – only arithmetic and some statistical operations are used to assign new attribute values. – Reclassification of polygons and combining polygons GIS Analysis Functions • Integrated processing of geometry and attributes is a means by which a GIS can request, retrieve and display all information on each object type represented. • Arithmetic, logical and statistical operations may be performed on the new attribute table. • A new thematic map may be compiled using the geometry and attributes GIS Analysis Functions • Geographic Information must be organized within a GIS for optimal convenience and efficiency of use • Paper maps organize geographic information as sets of themes – roads, streams, land cover types, etc. • Paper maps are constrained by size as to how much geographic area is covered – sometimes several maps in a series are used for large geographic areas • Separate maps are necessary to show information at different levels of detail and scales • Paper maps act as both the “storage” medium and the “presentation” medium of the geographic data GIS Analysis Functions • Within a GIS, storage and presentation of geographic data are separate – the level of detail of information stored and/or presented is limited to the resources of the technology (hardware and software capabilities) • When presenting data – the scale, level of detail of information, and symbols used to represent reality can be selected at the time of production (remember: presentation is possible at a lesser detailed level than was stored, but not at a more detailed level!) • Large geographic areas may be subdivided into smaller units for storage (as separate data files) and the GIS will ensure that adjacent units match along their borders • Different types of thematic information (map layers in a paper map) are treated as data layers in a GIS GIS Analysis Functions A data layer is a set of logically related geographic features and attributes GIS Analysis Functions • The major analysis functions of a GIS can be categorized into four major groups (from GIS: A Management Perspective, by Aronoff) • (1) Maintenance and Analysis of Spatial Data • (2) Maintenance and Analysis of Attribute Data • (3) Integrated Analysis of Spatial and Attribute Data • (4) Output formatting GIS Analysis Functions • Maintenance and Analysis of Spatial data – These functions are used to transform, edit and assess the accuracy of spatial data files – The capacity to transform source data into a data form used within the GIS system and being able to edit the data files is a basic requirement – Sub-categories include: Format Transformation, Geometric Transformation, Map Projection Transformation, Conflation, Edge Matching, Graphic Element editing, and Line Coordinate thinning GIS Analysis Functions – Spatial Data • Format Transformation – The process by which data files are transformed into the data structure and file format used by a GIS • Raster data files to raster-based GIS needs little to no transformation • Vector-based systems - ”building” topology from coordinate data is a necessity • Transformation process may be time-consuming and costly if collected data not in a form suited to GIS – I.e. CAD drawings are not topologically structured, and if used in a GIS are difficult to transform GIS Analysis Functions – Spatial Data • Geometric Transformation – the process by which one data layer is adjusted to another data for overlay operations • Adjustment operation is called “Registration” as the different data layers are registered to one common coordinate system – or registered to a “standard” data layer – Relative Position – registering multiple layers by identifying common features for registration (roads, streams, etc.). aka – Rubber Sheeting (stretching of one data layer to another) (Propagation errors a possibility, if mis-registering!) – Absolute Position – registering each data layer, first, individually to same geographic coordinate system – then registering to each other (No propagation errors) GIS Analysis Functions – Spatial Data • Transformations between Geometric Projections - a mathematical transformation of a spherical surface (the 3-dimensional globe) to a flat surface (the 2-dimensional map) • Latitude and longitude coordinate system developed to uniquely reference points on the Earth’s surface • Map projections have inherent distortions in representations of area, shape, distance and direction GIS Analysis Functions – Spatial Data • Conflation – the process of reconciling positions of corresponding features in different data layers – An important process in studying changes over time • Conflation functions used to minimize “sliver” polygon creation by creating a template or standard to which all other layers will be compared and reconciled • Conflation can be a manual or computerized procedure – Used to fix position of shoreline of reservoir (fluctuates over time); baseline position of meandering rivers, etc. GIS Analysis Functions – Spatial Data • Edge Matching – adjusting the position of features that extend across map boundaries. • In a GIS, large coverages may be entered from separate map sheets and then organized to present data as a continuous geographic coverage. • Data input errors may not allow map boundaries to align perfectly – GIS software makes the necessary adjustment GIS Analysis Functions – Spatial Data • Editing Functions – These may include adding, deleting or changing the geographic position of features – Sliver polygons – created by polygon overlays and digitizing errors • Operator supervision may be needed to correctly identify and remove these – Line-snapping – corrects undershoots by connecting lines to nodes GIS Analysis Functions – Spatial Data • Line coordinate Thinning – reduces the quantity of coordinate data stored in a GIS – Subsequent reduction in data volume may increase processing speed of GIS – Degree of thinning must be controlled by GIS operator – GIS Analysis Functions – Buffering operations • Buffering is an important spatial analysis function, constraining space around selected land features. • Buffering combines spatial data techniques and cartographic modeling. • Points, lines and polygons can be buffered, as well as raster pixels or sets of pixels GIS Analysis Functions • Buffering Example: A national historic and archeological site needs to be accessible to the public, while protecting sensitive habitats and valuable features • Setting constraints will allow the GIS to find the best way to protect sensitive areas, while allowing public access. For example: – 1 meter buffer for stream banks – 2 meter buffer for cliff edges – 50 meter buffer for active archeological sites, 10 meter buffer for inactive sites – Paths must be connected with crossing sensitive habitat areas GIS Analysis Functions • This example demonstrates how a variable buffer can be performed on a selected feature • Descriptive spatial analysis can be performed on the buffered and ancillary data: – Distance – Area – Intersection GIS Analysis Functions • Another buffering example: A logging company with restrictions as to the type and quantity of trees they can harvest. • GIS is used to determine the best location, within the required parameters. GIS Analysis Functions • Restrictions: – No harvesting within 10 km of Shrine – No harvesting within 1 km of sea, lake or river – Logging sites must be within 5 km of existing roads for accessibility – no new roads can be built Modelling on Computer http://educationally.narod.ru/linksgis4.html Glossary http://educationally.narod.ru/Gisglossaryphotoalbum.html Output-maps http://educationally.narod.ru/linksgis5.html MAKING MAPS: GIS and Cartography http://educationally.narod.ru/gismapphotoalbum.html (GIS & Cartography lecture notes): Definition of a map; cartographic traditions, map basics (projections, latitude, longitude, symbolization, legends, etc.) 3 purposes/benefits and value of maps; difference between topographic and thematic maps (types of thematic maps), Thematic maps in GIS; Concept of Scale: small- vs. large-scale maps; four types of data and appropriate labeling of features Questions addressed by maps: User? Purpose? Where used? How used? Available data? Resources? Basic map elements: title, scale, legend, date, bibliography, etc. Map layout balancing of elements Cartographer’s palette: style, color, shadings, size, Labeling: points, lines, areas (polygons), highlighting within maps Making A Map in ArcView – Classification types: Nominal, Ordinal, Ratio, Interval What is Natural Breaks? What is Quantiles? What is Equal Interval? How do you symbolize data? What are your choices? Remote sensing, history of remote sensing, spatial resolution, Spectral Regions/bands used, Spectral Signatures Three levels of resolution relative to an objects discernability, principle steps used to analyze all remotely sensed data, General characteristics of Landsat TM vs. SPOT vs. AVHRR, GOES, pixel, applications of remote sensing in GIS Energy Sources (EM Spectrum, EMR) Transfer of Energy Methods (3) Atmosphere and EMR interactions EMR and matter interactions Platforms and Sensor types Whiskbroom Scanner vs. Pushbroom Scanner Landsat vs SPOT? Making Maps cource description Unit 1: Intro to GIS/what is GIS Unit 2: Intro to ArcGIS software ArcGIS is the propriety GIS software produced by Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI). It is one of many different GIS software programs currently in use. ArcGIS includes ArcView, ArcEditor, and ARC/INFO: the introductory level for personal use is ArcView, while ARC/INFO is a very robust system generally used by government offices. This PowerPoint introduces you to some of the basic features of ArcGIS. Unit 3: ArcGIS Document Storage ArcGIS has a unique way to ''save'' your maps, tables, layouts and other documents used in creating a GIS project. This PowerPoint presents some of the challenges you might encounter as you save and open your GIS projects. ArcMap Storage Unit 4: GIS Basics There are two ways to ''view'' the world through GIS. One way is to map all the features of the real world as a series of points, lines, or areas (polygons). This is the Vector Data Model. The second way assumes that the real world is a series of homogenous, equally-shaped grid cells - each cell has the same feature or attribute. This is the Raster Data Model. This PowerPoint lecture presents both the Vector Data Model and Raster Data Model as they are used in GIS. The concept of ''topology'' is also presented. Unit 5: Coordinate Systems, Datums and Projections One of the great challenges of working with GIS data is creating informative, interesting, and readable maps. To make maps, many different ''layers'' of data must be accessed, overlayed and registered to the same coordinate system and projection. Imagine making a map with point data (campsites, for instance), line data (roads and hiking trails), and polygon data (park boundaries, city/county boundaries). All these data must be in the same coordinate system otherwise GIS cannot ''put them together'' and you have no map! This lecture introduces you to the basic concepts of what is a coordinate system, what is a projection and the role they play in working with data in a GIS. Coordinate Systems, Datums and Projections Unit 6: Data Formats and Sources Creating a GIS database is a complex operation which involves data capture, verification, and processing. This PowerPoint lecture describes some of the various techniques employed in creating databases. Data Formats and Sources Unit 7: Data Management, Part 1 The development of computer-based storage and retrieval technology came out of a basic need of industries to function more effectively, with accurate and timely information. This PowerPoint lecture takes you through the basic concepts of database models, database terminology, three database models used in industry and, more specifically, in GIS. Unit 8: Data Management, Part 2 Data organization can be understood from four perspectives: the Data Perspective, a Relationship Perspective, an Operating System Perspective and an Application Architecture Perspective. This PowerPoint introduces you to these four perspectives Unit 9: Data Sources; Inputs and Outputs There are many sources of data available today - much more than even a few years ago. Almost all data is in a format that can be used in a GIS. ESRI, with its great marketing, has garnered a large share of the market, so it''s no surprise that you can download data in ''shapefiles'' or ''*.e00'' formats that can drop right into ArcINFO, ArcEditor, or ArcView. This very short PowerPoint presents only a few of the most likely data sources you''ll encounter and access. Data Sources: Inputs and Outputs Unit 10: Remote Sensing Remote Sensing is capturing information about a feature on the surface of the Earth without physically being in contact with the feature. Cameras are, in essence, remote sensing vehicles! Of course, the remote sensing vehicles we''re going to examine in this lecture are ones that are orbiting the Earth at high altitudes. This PowerPoint will be presented in class in two lectures: the first portion will cover the more technical points of remote sensing: electromagnetic waves, hardware, types of remote sensing vehicles available, image processing and others; the second portion will present a case study using Landsat data and GIS to examine and analyze the 2003 Paradise Fire in San Diego County, California - one of the many wildfires that have occurred in southern California over the last decade. Unit 11: Data Quality Until recently, GIS developers and users paid little attention to problems caused by error, inaccuracy and imprecision in spatial datasets. There was awareness that all data suffers from inaccuracy and imprecision, but effects on GIS problems and solutions were not considered. It is now generally recognized that error, inaccuracy and imprecision can “make or break” GIS projects – making the results of a GIS analysis worthless. This Powerpoint introduces you to some of the Data Quality challenges you may encounter in GIS. Unit 12: Making a Map in GIS ArcGIS has many options to map your data. The option you should not take is the ''default''. ArcGIS is not a cartography tool - it is an analyzing tool. You are the cartographer and need to know how to make a good, informative, clear map using ArcGIS. Unit 13: GIS and Cartography The art and science of map making - cartography - has been around for 1000s of years. Some of the first maps that are still intact were created on clay in 6200 B.C. (It was a town map -probably for tax purposes!) Today, cartographers use a new tool for their mapping - a computer and a software program designed to produce maps. For your purposes - you will be using the ArcGIS software to produce the maps for this class. This PowerPoint introduces you to some of the ''rules'' about map-making. Following the suggestions will help you produce a clear, concise and informative map of your analyzed data. Course Home - Exam 2 Essay Questions Exam 2 Short Answer Essay Questions (33 points) Please answer the following questions in a new document. Proof for spelling and grammar errors and submit through the DropBox set up on eCompanion. The essays are due on Tuesday, November 3, 2009 before the start of our class (7:00 pm). 1. How does organization of hierarchical data files differ from the organization of relational data files? (3 points) 2. What is the difference between precision and accuracy in GIS? (2 points) 3. What is a “spurious” or “sliver” polygon in GIS? How is it created in a spatial database and how can it be corrected (or eliminated)? (2 points) 4. What is “metadata” and why is it important to GIS? (3 points) 5. How does ‘data’ differ from ‘information’? (2 points) 6. Why are information systems more data-oriented today than ­technology-oriented? (3 points) 7. What does ‘normalize the data’ mean in GIS? What is GIS (ArcView) doing to the data? (3 points) 8. List the steps necessary to add a field to an existing attribute table in ArcView (2 points) 9. How would the incorporation of slope and aspect (from a DEM) and hydrologic information (such as drainage divides and stream networks) into a GIS assist a resource manager? (3 points) 10. What is the function of a ''neatline'' on a map? How do you place a ''neatline'' on a map in ArcGIS? (2 pts) 11. How do you add a "legend" to a map in ArcGIS? What are the editing options available in the ArcGIS "Legend" Properties? (3 pts) 12. List and describe how data can be symbolized in ArcView. Include in your discussion, the advantages and disadvantages of each type of symbology, as well as the kind of data (i.e., nominal, ordinal, interval, etc) that works best for each symbology and legend type. Indicate also if the symbology type is specific to ‘polygon’, ‘arc’, or ‘point’ data. (5 points) Course Home - Intro GIS Exam 2 Study Guide INTRODUCTION TO GIS EXAM 2 STUDY GUIDE Vicki Drake Earth Science Department Santa Monica College Be able to identify, define and give an example for each of the following terms and concepts in GIS Data Quality Sources of error (Obvious) Age of data, area cover, map scale, density observation, relevance, formatting, accessibility, cost (Natural variation/measurement) Positional Accuracy, Accuracy of Content, Sources of Variation in Data Processing errors, numerical errors, topological error analysis, classification/generalization errors, digitizing and encoding errors, digitizing, data storage errors, Propagation and Cascading errors, undocumented data (3 important issues to consider before using) Standards of Accuracy USGS National Mapping Standard - How are standards set? Why? USGS Geospatial Data Standards Spatial Data Transfer Standards USGS Map Accuracy Standards Data Quality Reports Metadata: What is this? Are there standards? Who set the standards? How is Metadata prepared? Why is it prepared? Should you create one for your projects? Federal Metadata Standard – What is this? What are the broad Metadata Categories set by the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC)? Three concepts of geospatial data in a GIS? Managing Error Testing data? Sensitivity Analysis – what is this? How does it work? What is Interval/Ratio Input testing? What is Nominal (categorical) or ordinal (ranked) testing? How are data quality assessed? What are the characteristics of data quality (according to Aronoff?) – Micro-level, macro-level and usage components What is Accuracy as it pertains to GIS database? What is Precision as it relates to GIS database? How does Positional Accuracy related to USGS mapping standards? Can you relate accuracy standards with Map scale? How does bias and precision relate to positional accuracy? What is attribute accuracy – How does is relate to attribute accuracy, continuous attribute accuracy, categorical attribute accuracy, errors of omission, and errors of commission? What is logical consistency? – How can you test for it in a database? What is resolution in a database? How can you test for it? What is completeness in a database? – How does it relate to Completeness of Classification, or Completeness of Verification? How does Time, Lineage, Usage costs and accessibility relate to Data Quality issues? Data Models: Questions, Sources, Input, Output What is a model? How can a database model reality? What is a vector data format? A Raster data format? Advantages/disadvantages of each type (raster/vector) What questions should be asked about data and modeling? How is a GIS database developed? Data input and output devices? Topology: relationship to GIS? How is topology conserved/preserved using point data? Arc/line data? Area/polygon data? What is connectivity and contiguity in topological relationships? How can GIS represent relationships in terms of: Spatial relationships? In terms of Logical Relationships? In terms of Functional relationships? What is a Spatial Database? Can a database be used by two different Organizations for different purposes? Two approaches to Database Management: File Processing and Database Management – Similarities? Differences? Operations? Advantages and Disadvantages? Database Elements: Entity, object, attribute, attribute value, feature, Spatial object type, spatial primitives, symbol, database models, Layers (themes, coverages) o-dimensional object type 1-dimensional object type 2-dimensional object type Database Models: Hierarchical, Network, Relational – Advantages and Disadvantages of each type – Which one is used most often in a GIS? (Be able to define, describe, compare and contrast each of these Database Models – see Chapter 6 in Aronoff’s book) Database Structure – Tables, Queries, Tuples (Record row), Records,, Fields, Key Fields (Primary Key), (Digital Cartographic Data Standards Task Force terminology) “Data” vs. “Information” – Information systems function Geographic Data structures: Descriptive element – Graphical Element Four components of information systems – traditionally Main component driving Information systems today Data item (attribute), data file (flat file – hierarchical file), character Strings, numeric strings, Four perspectives of Information Systems: 1. Data Perspective, (Descriptive or Graphical Elements using either Raster Data method or Vector data method) Object view – Field View 2. Relationship Perspective – categorical relationships or spatial Relationships (Categorical): Classification system Nominal, Ordinal, Interval Ratio) Spatial: Topological, Proximal 3. Operating System Perspective (OS) Directories – subdirectories - GIS “Workspace” concept 4. Application Architecture Perspective Client/Server concept and implementation Descriptive Data Structure Object-Oriented Data Structure Type Constructor Graphic Data Structures (Raster/Vector) Raster Data Structure How represented? What is tessellation? Why use Raster format?? What is a TIN? What is a Quadtree? What is a run-length encoding compression? How is a Raster created? What are Raster data values? How is raster data stored? Vector Data Structure How represented? Why use? How create? What is topology and how does it relate to Vector? What is “Adjacency” , “Connectivity”, “Containment” in terms of topology? How is Vector data stored? What is the Spaghetti Model of Vector Data? What is the Hierarchical Model of Vector Data? What is the Topological Model of Vector Data? Which one is more useful in a GIS? How is Vector data stored in each of these models? What is a Georelational Data Structure in Vector Data model? What are the Advantages or Disadvantages of using either a Raster Data Model or a Vector Data Model? (GIS & Cartography lecture notes): Definition of a map; cartographic traditions, map basics (projections, latitude, longitude, symbolization, legends, etc.) 3 purposes/benefits and value of maps; difference between topographic and thematic maps (types of thematic maps), Thematic maps in GIS; Concept of Scale: small- vs. large-s GIS Analitic Function http://educationally.narod.ru/gisanalitphotoalbum.html Tutorials Exam 2 Short Answer Essay Questions (33 points) Please answer the following questions in a new document. Proof for spelling and grammar errors and submit through the DropBox set up on eCompanion. The essays are due on Tuesday, November 3, 2009 before the start of our class (7:00 pm). 1. How does organization of hierarchical data files differ from the organization of relational data files? (3 points) 2. What is the difference between precision and accuracy in GIS? (2 points) 3. What is a “spurious” or “sliver” polygon in GIS? How is it created in a spatial database and how can it be corrected (or eliminated)? (2 points) 4. What is “metadata” and why is it important to GIS? (3 points) 5. How does ‘data’ differ from ‘information’? (2 points) 6. Why are information systems more data-oriented today than ­technology-oriented? (3 points) 7. What does ‘normalize the data’ mean in GIS? What is GIS (ArcView) doing to the data? (3 points) 8. List the steps necessary to add a field to an existing attribute table in ArcView (2 points) 9. How would the incorporation of slope and aspect (from a DEM) and hydrologic information (such as drainage divides and stream networks) into a GIS assist a resource manager? (3 points) 10. What is the function of a ''neatline'' on a map? How do you place a ''neatline'' on a map in ArcGIS? (2 pts) 11. How do you add a "legend" to a map in ArcGIS? What are the editing options available in the ArcGIS "Legend" Properties? (3 pts) 12. List and describe how data can be symbolized in ArcView. Include in your discussion, the advantages and disadvantages of each type of symbology, as well as the kind of data (i.e., nominal, ordinal, interval, etc) that works best for each symbology and legend type. Indicate also if the symbology type is specific to ‘polygon’, ‘arc’, or ‘point’ data. (5 points) INTRODUCTION TO GIS EXAM 2 STUDY GUIDE Vicki Drake Earth Science Department Santa Monica College Be able to identify, define and give an example for each of the following terms and concepts in GIS Data Quality Sources of error (Obvious) Age of data, area cover, map scale, density observation, relevance, formatting, accessibility, cost (Natural variation/measurement) Positional Accuracy, Accuracy of Content, Sources of Variation in Data Processing errors, numerical errors, topological error analysis, classification/generalization errors, digitizing and encoding errors, digitizing, data storage errors, Propagation and Cascading errors, undocumented data (3 important issues to consider before using) Standards of Accuracy USGS National Mapping Standard - How are standards set? Why? USGS Geospatial Data Standards Spatial Data Transfer Standards USGS Map Accuracy Standards Data Quality Reports Metadata: What is this? Are there standards? Who set the standards? How is Metadata prepared? Why is it prepared? Should you create one for your projects? Federal Metadata Standard – What is this? What are the broad Metadata Categories set by the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC)? Three concepts of geospatial data in a GIS? Managing Error Testing data? Sensitivity Analysis – what is this? How does it work? What is Interval/Ratio Input testing? What is Nominal (categorical) or ordinal (ranked) testing? How are data quality assessed? What are the characteristics of data quality (according to Aronoff?) – Micro-level, macro-level and usage components What is Accuracy as it pertains to GIS database? What is Precision as it relates to GIS database? How does Positional Accuracy related to USGS mapping standards? Can you relate accuracy standards with Map scale? How does bias and precision relate to positional accuracy? What is attribute accuracy – How does is relate to attribute accuracy, continuous attribute accuracy, categorical attribute accuracy, errors of omission, and errors of commission? What is logical consistency? – How can you test for it in a database? What is resolution in a database? How can you test for it? What is completeness in a database? – How does it relate to Completeness of Classification, or Completeness of Verification? How does Time, Lineage, Usage costs and accessibility relate to Data Quality issues? Data Models: Questions, Sources, Input, Output What is a model? How can a database model reality? What is a vector data format? A Raster data format? Advantages/disadvantages of each type (raster/vector) What questions should be asked about data and modeling? How is a GIS database developed? Data input and output devices? Topology: relationship to GIS? How is topology conserved/preserved using point data? Arc/line data? Area/polygon data? What is connectivity and contiguity in topological relationships? How can GIS represent relationships in terms of: Spatial relationships? In terms of Logical Relationships? In terms of Functional relationships? What is a Spatial Database? Can a database be used by two different Organizations for different purposes? Two approaches to Database Management: File Processing and Database Management – Similarities? Differences? Operations? Advantages and Disadvantages? Database Elements: Entity, object, attribute, attribute value, feature, Spatial object type, spatial primitives, symbol, database models, Layers (themes, coverages) o-dimensional object type 1-dimensional object type 2-dimensional object type Database Models: Hierarchical, Network, Relational – Advantages and Disadvantages of each type – Which one is used most often in a GIS? (Be able to define, describe, compare and contrast each of these Database Models – see Chapter 6 in Aronoff’s book) Database Structure – Tables, Queries, Tuples (Record row), Records,, Fields, Key Fields (Primary Key), (Digital Cartographic Data Standards Task Force terminology) “Data” vs. “Information” – Information systems function Geographic Data structures: Descriptive element – Graphical Element Four components of information systems – traditionally Main component driving Information systems today Data item (attribute), data file (flat file – hierarchical file), character Strings, numeric strings, Four perspectives of Information Systems: 1. Data Perspective, (Descriptive or Graphical Elements using either Raster Data method or Vector data method) Object view – Field View 2. Relationship Perspective – categorical relationships or spatial Relationships (Categorical): Classification system Nominal, Ordinal, Interval Ratio) Spatial: Topological, Proximal 3. Operating System Perspective (OS) Directories – subdirectories - GIS “Workspace” concept 4. Application Architecture Perspective Client/Server concept and implementation Descriptive Data Structure Object-Oriented Data Structure Type Constructor Graphic Data Structures (Raster/Vector) Raster Data Structure How represented? What is tessellation? Why use Raster format?? What is a TIN? What is a Quadtree? What is a run-length encoding compression? How is a Raster created? What are Raster data values? How is raster data stored? Vector Data Structure How represented? Why use? How create? What is topology and how does it relate to Vector? What is “Adjacency” , “Connectivity”, “Containment” in terms of topology? How is Vector data stored? What is the Spaghetti Model of Vector Data? What is the Hierarchical Model of Vector Data? What is the Topological Model of Vector Data? Which one is more useful in a GIS? How is Vector data stored in each of these models? What is a Georelational Data Structure in Vector Data model? What are the Advantages or Disadvantages of using either a Raster Data Model or a Vector Data Model? (GIS & Cartography lecture notes): Definition of a map; cartographic traditions, map basics (projections, latitude, longitude, symbolization, legends, etc.) 3 purposes/benefits and value of maps; difference between topographic and thematic maps (types of thematic maps), Thematic maps in GIS; Concept of Scale: small- vs. large-scale maps; four types of data and appropriate labeling of features Questions addressed by maps: User? Purpose? Where used? How used? Available data? Resources? Basic map elements: title, scale, legend, date, bibliography, etc. Map layout balancing of elements Cartographer’s palette: style, color, shadings, size, Labeling: points, lines, areas (polygons), highlighting within maps Making A Map in ArcView – Classification types: Nominal, Ordinal, Ratio, Interval What is Natural Breaks? What is Quantiles? What is Equal Interval? How do you symbolize data? What are your choices? Remote sensing, history of remote sensing, spatial resolution, Spectral Regions/bands used, Spectral Signatures Three levels of resolution relative to an objects discernability, principle steps used to analyze all remotely sensed data, General characteristics of Landsat TM vs. SPOT vs. AVHRR, GOES, pixel, applications of remote sensing in GIS Energy Sources (EM Spectrum, EMR) Transfer of Energy Methods (3) Atmosphere and EMR interactions EMR and matter interactions Platforms and Sensor types Whiskbroom Scanner vs. Pushbroom Scanner Landsat vs SPOT? Data Structure http://educationally.narod.ru/gisdatastrphotoalbum.html Etical aspects of GIS http://educationally.narod.ru/giseticaphotoalbum.html About data map types http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa723440.aspx GIS in Russia http://educationally.narod.ru/linksgisru.html Implementing GIS http://educationally.narod.ru/gisplanphotoalbum.html Designing and Implementing a GIS Introduction Many of you may become involved in designing and implementing a GIS system for your organization, or for your general research needs. The following notes summarize Roger Tomlinson’s basic design for implementing a GIS. (Tomlinson, Roger. 2007. Thinking About GIS. Third Edition. ESRI Press: Redlands, CA - source of most notes, and suggested reading). Ten Stages to GIS Planning (Tomlinson 2007) Tomlinson (2007) has broken down the task of implementing a GIS into ten stages. These steps may require a lot or little detail depending upon the scope and size of your project. 1: Consider the Strategic Purpose What is the general purpose of your organization, what are the goals, objectives, and mandates? How does GIS fit into these? If your organization is involved in natural or human resource management, then a GIS may form an integral part of your organization. On the other hand, maybe spatial data is a small part of your organization. A GIS must fit into your needs, and not be implemented just because you can. Look at the following for your organization: mission statement, guiding principles, goal statement, program direction, employee development and support, and public interaction. 2: Plan for the Planning Develop a project proposal for a formal planning process for implementing GIS. This is the stage where executive level commitments are made for the process to begin. This stage can be very informal if you are part of a very small organization or just one person. Who is on the team, what is the timeline? 3: Conduct a Technology Seminar Define what is needed from a GIS, and what GIS can do for your organization. 4: Describe the Information Products What do you need to make your job(s) easier, more efficient? Maps, lists, reports. Who needs the information, what are the requirements? 5: Define the System Scope What data to acquire, when, how much, source for the data? 6: Create a Data Design What is the best way to represent the data that you need?, scale, resolution, map projection, error tolerance, do you need multiple versions at different scales? Data standards and conversion? What software will you use, and how does it interface with your present system(s). 7: Choose a Logical Data Model How will the data be structured for your organization? Relational database (think related tables based on key), object-oriented, object-relational. Will you use a geodatabase model? 8: Determine System Requirements What software is needed (desktop GIS, web based server)? What size computer system, and network needs are required? How much will it cost? 9: Consider Benefit-cost, Migration, and Risk Analysis How much will the system cost, versus what are the benefits. Include hardware and software, data, staffing and training, application programming, and interfaces and communication (network). This will also help you to revise your plan based on budget (e.g. image resolution vs. cost). 10: Plan the Implementation This plan identifies the actions required for implementing GIS, such as product identification, equipment and software purchased, training, Exam http://educationally.narod.ru/linksgis8.html