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Output: from new maps to enhanced decisions http://wps.prenhall.com/ema_uk_he_heywood_introgis_2/8/2280/583906.cw/index.html Maps as output Non-cartographic output Spatial multimedia Mechanisms of delivery GIS and spatial decision support What are the main forms of GIS output? What are the basic elements of a map? How is three-dimensional output handled by GIS? What are the output media used by GIS? Why are maps important decision aids? What are Spatial Decision Support Systems (SDSS)? How has the Internet affected GIS? What are VRGIS? Why is map design an important consideration when creating maps using a GIS? What are the main elements of a map? What are cartograms and how do they differ from traditional map output? When may non-cartographic output be more appropriate than drawing a map? What is the difference between permanent and ephemeral output? What mechanisms are available for the delivery of GIS output? What are the six characteristics of a DSS and an SDSS? Describe how the Internet has changed GIS. Multiple choice questions The following multiple choice questions (MCQs) are intended for either formative assessment of student progress when using the book as a course text or to help the general reader assess their own progress/understanding of the book’s content. There are two main types of MCQ: those where there is only one correct answer and those where there are more than one possible answer. For example: Q1 is an example of an MCQ where there is only one correct answer in the given list. Radio buttons are used to allow you to select the answer that you think is correct. Only one button can be switched on. Clicking on another button in the list if you change your mind switches the previously selected button off. Q2 is an example of an MCQ where more than one of the options given is correct. Check boxes are used to allow you to select those answers that you think are correct. More than one (or all) the boxes can be checked. Clicking on a previously checked box if you change your mind will uncheck that box. Another type of MCQ is a picture question. In this instance you will be shown a picture and be asked a question that relates to it. In some cases the associated question will be a straightforward single or multiple answer question like the ones above. Once you have finished the questions, click on the ''Submit Answers for Grade'' button to get your results. If prior arrangements have been made to email these results to your lecturer, scroll down to the bottom of the Results Reporter page and complete the relevant details found there. Do not send your results to your lecturer unless specifically requested to do so. 1 . What is chart junk? Incorrect plots generated by GIS Unreadable maps and graphs Awful pop music Unnecessary detail around maps and diagrams 2 . Which of the following is not an example of a class interval system used in choropleth mapping? Extremities Equal interval Percentiles Quartiles User-specified 3 . What is a cartogram? A form of map based on photogrametric principles A map drawn by using CAD/CAM tools A form of map drawn by using Braille for the visually impaired A form of map where objects are drawn using non-Euclidean coordinates 4 . Which of the following are examples of non-cartographic output? Dynamically linked graphs Tables Charts Thematic maps GPS coordinate plots 5 . What is a linked display? A mobile GIS consisting of PDA and mobile phone A set of graphs and maps where items are linked in separate displays A pilot’s head-up cockpit display A set of linked tables displayed in a RDBMS 6 . What does the abbreviation VRML stand for? Visual Relationship Modelling Language Visual Resource Markup Language Virtual Reality Markup Language Virtual Reality Modelling Language 7 . Which of the following are important characteristics of a SDSS? They are designed to handle exclusively spatial data They incorporate spatially explicit models They are designed to make full use of available data They are easy to use They do not require user intervention USEPA EnviroMapper Store http://www.epa.gov/enviro/html/em/index.html Online access to US EPA data. Web-mapper.com http://www.web-mapper.com/main.cfm Site devoted to news and listings of web mapping applications. Mapinfo Professional v6.0 Goes 3D & Web Active http://spatialnews.geocomm.com/features/mapinfo60.html Mapinfo, the leading provider of location-aware business intelligence solutions, has announced the release of Maplnfo Professional 6.0, the newest version of the company''s flagship product. New features - including built-in 3D graphic capabilities to make hidden trends and patterns on the ground literally stand-out; HotLinks for immediate and live Internet connectivity from points on a map; support for the newest release of Oracle8i Spatial and enhancements to spatial data creation and printed output - reflect Maplnfo''s commitment to provide its customers with the most robust enterprise client in its class GIS http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system GIS and CARTOGRAPHY VICKI DRAKE Department of Earth Science Santa Monica College GIS and Cartography • In general, output from GIS does not have to be a map • Many GIS are designed with poor map output capabilities • Text output may be more important than a map for analysis reporting • However, much GIS output is in the form of hard copy maps or graphic displays • Design of graphic output is critical to effective use of GIS analysis GIS and Cartography • Graphic output from GIS usually poorly designed – Colors used randomly without appropriate or conventional scaling as used in cartography • The greater capability of a screen display introduces new challenges from standard paper map display • For GIS, the graphic output should show – Features approximately symbolized or labeled – Objects computed by the GIS (buffer zone, I.e.) – Relationships between features GIS and Cartography • What are some of the concerns regarding using the screen display as a GIS output? • The screen, in general, is smaller with a lower resolution than a printed or plotted map – The screen is, however, more flexible allowing for “zoom, pan, interaction, use of color” • A hard copy map displays all the information necessary to satisfy a user needs – An interactive screen displays limited information, but provides for access to more information with a ‘mouse click’. GIS and Cartography • Cartographic traditions are fundamentally important to GIS • Maps are the main source of data for GIS and GIS has roots in the analysis of information on maps • GIS output is most often in the form of a map, and as such, can benefit from principles of cartographic design developed in cartography regarding: – Graphical excellence – Principles of map design • Remember –computers do not make good or bad maps – cartographers do! GIS and Cartography • Maps are a means of recording and communicating two kinds of information about the natural world, of society and culture – Location (mathematically) – Spatial characteristics of the location • Maps, according to the International Cartographic Association, are …”a representation, to scale and on a flat medium, of a selection of material or abstract features on the surface of the Earth…” GIS and Cartography • Production of a map requires: – The selection of features in the real world to include – Classification of the selected features – Simplification of complex lines (like coastlines, rivers) – Exaggeration of included features that are too small to show at scale of the map – Symbolization of the different classes of the selected features GIS and Cartography • Maps have value in three ways • (1) As a means of recording and storing information – Plat, parcel, cadastral maps record property – Census maps record population – Infrastructure or utilities maps record water, power, telephone and transportation lines – Location of USGS water-quality test sites in Wisconsin GIS and Cartography GIS and Cartography • (2) Analyzing locational distributions and spatial patterns – Maps visually allow recognition of spatial distributions and relationships - patterns and spatial processes can be easily determined and analyzed – Environmental factors affecting poverty in Africa, by Christine Byer, George Mason GIS and Cartography GIS and Cartography • (3) Maps are a method of presenting information and communicating findings – Findings that are difficult to express verbally are more easily conveyed through a map. – Maps can be used to convince or persuade – The Rise and Fall of Mesoamerica by Chad Shuey, George Mason University GIS and Cartography GIS and Cartography • Maps, then, can be viewed as a form of visual communication – the language being that of describing spatial relationships • Maps are symbolic representations of reality – a ‘generalization’ or ‘abstraction’ even • Simplification of the real world is inevitable as symbols are used to stand for ‘real objects’ GIS and Cartography GIS and Cartography • In practice, there are two types of maps: • Topographic Map – a reference tool, showing outlines of selected natural and man-made features on the Earth • Thematic Map – a communication tool, showing distribution of geographical concepts such as population, climate, land use, etc. GIS and Cartography • In GIS, there are several important thematic maps • Choropleth map – using “reporting zones” to show data (census tracts, for example) – Zone boundaries independent from data • Area Class map – showing zones of constant attributes (vegetation, soil type, or forest species) – Zone boundaries determined by distribution of mapped attribute data • Isopleth map – continuous surface maps connecting ‘isolines’ (topographic contours, precipitation, temperature or air pressure data) – Phenomena varies smoothly across map surface GIS and Cartography • The measure of a good map is how well it conveys information • Questions to be addressed in the making of a map: • What is the goal of this map? • Who is the intended user of this map? • Where and how will this map be used? • What data is available for the composition of the map? • What resources are available (time, equipment, etc.)? GIS and Cartography GIS and Cartography • Questions relating to the form, layout and composition of a map are just as important as those of the ‘message, audience and context’ • The final size, proportions and the media used for production must be considered • The concept of ‘scale’ of a map must also be considered. GIS and Cartography • Scale of a map is the ratio between distances on the map and corresponding distances in the real world • “Small scale” and “large scale” are often confused – Large-scale maps show great details, small features (large representative fraction: 1:10,000) – Small-scale maps show little detail, large features (small representative fraction: 1:250,000) • Scale not only controls how features are shown, but what features are shown – For example, a 1:2,500 map will show individual houses, while a 1:100,000 map will not GIS and Cartography • The amount of detail included is dependent on the scale at which the map is produced – A small scale map must be more generalized – A large scale map will be less generalized GIS and Cartography • Basic Map Elements – Information commonly needed by a map reader • Title, scale, legend, body of map, north arrow, cartographer, neatline, date of production, projection used, etc. are examples of map elements GIS and Cartography • Each map element is given an importance and priority within the overall map design. • The most important elements are featured in more prominent positions, occupying a larger portion of the entire map. • Once the ‘hierarchy’ and arrangement of the elements is established, the overall balance within the map frame needs to be considered. GIS and Cartography • Creating a map layout is as much an art form as a science. • Experimentation with possible layouts, and rearranging the elements is needed to achieve an effective final map layout. • There should be a good reason for each element placed on the map, and for its composition and position • The slogan “less is more” is a good rule to follow. Too much detail or too complex a layout is confusing and works against effective communication GIS and Cartography • The use of symbols to represent location, direction, distance, movement, etc is how cartographers represent the real world on a map (into points, lines, areas) • A variety of visual resources are used and employed to draw attention to map features, or to stress particularly important information • The “Cartographer’s Palette” demonstrates some of the symbols used (from Jacques Bertin’s The Semiology of Graphics, (1983)) GIS and Cartography • The symbology used varies greatly depending on the nature of the phenomena being mapped • Four levels of measurement are distinguished to describe real-world phenomena – Nominal Data – information grouped into categories based on qualitative considerations (a road different from a river) – Ordinal Data – information grouped by rank on the basis of a quantitative measures (small, medium, large) – Interval Data – information arranged along a standard scale, beginning at an arbitrary zero, zero does not mean no data (temperature, for example) – Ratio Data – information arranged along a scale, but scale begins at non-arbitrary zero point (no feature/data at this zero) GIS and Cartography • Add text to a map is a demanding task. • The content and the form of the text is of great concern to the cartographer. • It is possible that the verbal content of a map is one of the powerful differences between a high-quality, professional map and an ineffective confusing map. GIS and Cartography • Special attention must be paid to the orientation of text with respect to the features being labeled. • Point features – lettering ‘points’ to the feature, but avoid lettering over boundaries GIS and Cartography GIS and Cartography • Linear features – lettering shows the features, but should not overlap map contents, and should reflect hierarchy of features by the use of different font sizes • Area features – letter occupies the area itself but may be connected to the feature by an arrow • Arrangement of the letters can convey subtle distinctions. Lettering pertinent to the map theme may be aligned with the map frame, whereas lettering describing background features is usually aligned with the graticule (latitude/longitude grid of map) GIS and Cartography • Foreground-background relationships expect that the most important map information will be displayed in the foreground to ‘catch’ the map reader’s attention • Details, then, will be assigned to the ‘background’ to make the map less confusing and more intelligible. • The use of color, value and patterning are ways in which cartographers can help resolve ambiguities Accessing GIS data via the WWW: Information Provision to the Ecotourist http://ausweb.scu.edu.au/aw96/cultural/pollitt/index.htm System Model To provide information to users over the WWW, we designed and constructed an interface to a GIS (namely Arc/Info) having 3 main features: Display: the manipulation, zooming, panning and selection of GIS database features. Hot Links: enabling the map to function as a regular imagemap taking the user directly to associated (standard) HTML pages. Interrogate: allowing the GIS database to be interrogated. To ensure a simple and user-friendly Graphical User Interface (GUI), all these functions were made available on the same map, on the one web page. A PERL script was written creating a HTML form with the above functions interpreting the user''s actions. The script decides which function the user has chosen, then acts as an interface to the GIS to perform the operation and returning the results to the user. Output devices of GIS for cartographic applications http://www.gisdevelopment.net/technology/carto/techca0008.htm GIS are very powerful tools for handling spatial data. they add or replace conventional research methods and evaluation techniques. They involve new procedures of capture, manipulation and presentation of spatial information. Cartography has new dimension of understanding of representation of real phenomena (object and process) due to digital structure development. Understanding of map as a cartographic representation inherent to GIS specialists is different to an exact cartographic definition of map as a basic cartographic work. The map is usually presented in two dimensional space but due to the graphic tools of information systems it has sense to be interested in multi dimentional representation despite problems with multi dimensional transformation. The computer map as a graphic output is understood as: the set of points, lines and areas defined by their location in space using reference system and non spatial attribute . Special attention has to be given to geographical data in digital data structures. Neither computer nor application software (in this case-GIS) are able to think like human being and in computer map production they are not able to carry out decisions which are inherent to cartographers. Procedure of map production (both traditional analouge and digital or computer) is implemented in certain sequence. For traditional map production thee as a direct one-way relationship between real phenomena and a map. The output devices for cartographic interpretation of spatial digital data have been assessed for various systems. The most important outcome from GIS applications is the fact that problems of cartography in GIS is getting narrow into field of digital data visualisation Maps as output http://www.smtcmpo.org/gis_about.asp the frame of reference the projection used the features to be mapped the level of generalization annotation used symbolism emploued Map components: Map Title Numeretic scale (mashtab) Insert map showing location North arrow Legend Graphic scale (M-b km) supplementary information (Source:date, Accuracy: +-50m, Projection:conic) Reference grid (cetka) Annotation Area A, Area B GIS for the Social Sciences http://books.google.com/books?id=2uN2p8NjsjAC&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=output+gis&source=bl&ots=Bh3XqcJWqV&sig=_Ul5GU_hcpTSGcqPB6kZx3km7iU&hl=en&ei=eBzRSvGXHZLgtgPXjc3vCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=output%20gis&f=false Components of Maps http://www.rockwood.k12.mo.us/Wildwood/betz/components_of_a_map__the_basics.htm There are several basic components that every map should have. Title - What are we looking at? A good title tells us exactly what (and possibly when) we''re looking at. Legend or Key - What are the things on the map? The Key tells us what all the little symbols on the map represent. Compass - Which way is North? That''s why we have a compass on the map! Scale - How big or small is the thing on the map? The scale will help us to judge distances and mentally picture the size of the stuff on the map. Map Components http://www.es.mq.edu.au/courses/GEOS264/maps/mapch1/mapcomp.htm The list of different map types in the introduction (topographic, thematic, atlas, scientific, special purpose), emphasises the differences between them, but they have many similarities. Three components, common to all maps can be defined: they use graphical symbols to give positional information. The graphical symbols are often considered by beginners to be confusing, but they are far less complex than the graphical symbols used to convey written information; they have keys to explain the symbols that are used; and they include auxiliary information such as the scale Map Cataloging Examples http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/asl/maps/cat/images/map-portion-images.html General map components are selection of portions of maps, geographic diagrams, and other images used for the Map Cataloging Workshop Micro-Terrain Features http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic11/Topic11.htm Map Analysis Analyzing Map Similarity and Zoning http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic10/Topic10.htm Compare Maps by the Numbers http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic10/Topic10.htm#Compare_maps Use Statistics to Compare Map Surfaces, Use Scatterplots to Understand Map Correlation http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic10/Topic10.htm#Compare_surfaces Analyzing Landscape Patterns http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic9/Topic9.htm Use GIS to Calculate Nearby Neighbor Statistics — describes a technique that calculates the proximity to all of the surrounding parcels of a similar vegetation type Use GIS to Analyze Landscape Structure — discusses the underlying principles in landscape analysis and introduces some example landscape indices Get to the Core of Landscape Analysis — describes techniques for assessing core area and edge characterization Use Metrics to Assess Forest Fragmentation — describes some landscape indices for determining richness and fragmentation Investigating Spatial Dependency http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic8/Topic8.htm GIS Data Are Rarely Normal — describes the basic non-spatial descriptive statistics Unlocking the Keystone Concept of Spatial Dependency — discusses spatial dependency and illustrates the effects of different spatial arrangements of the same set of data Measuring Spatial Dependency — describes the basic measures of autocorrelation Extending Spatial Dependency to Maps — describes a technique for generating a map of spatial autocorrelation Use Polar Variograms to Assess Distance and Direction Dependencies — discuses a procedure to incorporate direction as well as distance for assessing spatial dependency Linking Data Space and Geographic Space http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic7/Topic7.htm Beware the Slippery Surfaces of GIS Modeling — discusses the relationships among maps, map surfaces and data distributions Link Data and Geographic Distributions — describes the direct link between numeric and geographic distributions Normally Things Aren’t Normal — discusses the appropriateness of using traditional “normal” and percentile statistics Explore Mapped Data— describes creation of a Standardized Map Variable surface using Median and Quartile Range Babies and Bath Water — discusses the information lost in aggregating field data and assigning typical values to polygons (desktop mapping) Explore Data Space — establishes the concept of "data space" and how mapped data conforms to this fundamental view Identify Data Patterns — discusses data clustering and its application in identifying spatial patterns Analyzing In-Store Shopping Patterns http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic6/Topic6.htm GIS Analyzes In-Store Movement and Sales Patterns — describes a procedure using accumulation surface analysis to infer shopper movement from cash register data Further Analyzing In-Store Movement and Sales Patterns — discusses how map analysis is used to investigate the relationship between shopper movement and sales Continued Analysis of In-Store Movement and Sales Patterns — describes the use of temporal analysis and coincidence mapping to enhance shopping patterns Analyzing Accumulation Surfaces http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic5/Topic5.htm Building Accumulation Surfaces — reviews how proximity analysis and effective distance is used to construct accumulation surfaces Analyzing Accumulation Surfaces — describes how two surfaces can be analyzed to determine the relative travel-time advantages Determining Optimal Path Corridors — describes a technique for determining the set of nth best paths between two points Analyzing Stepped Accumulation Surfaces — describes a technique for forcing an optimal path through a series of points Where Is GIS Education? http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic4/Topic4.htm Considerations in Sampling Design Patterns and Relationships http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic3/Topic3.htm What''s the Point? — discusses the general considerations in point sampling design Designer Samples — describes different sampling patterns and their relative advantages Depending on the Data — discusses the fundamental concepts of spatial dependency Uncovering the Mysteries of Spatial Autocorrelation — describes approaches used in assessing spatial autocorrelation Landscape Visualization http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic12/Topic12.htm Behind the Scenes of Virtual Reality — discusses the basic considerations and concepts in 3d-object rendering How to Rapidly Construct a Virtual Scene — describes the procedures in generating a virtual scene from landscape inventory data How to Represent Changes in a Virtual Forest — discusses how simulations and "fly-bys" are used to visualize landscape changes and characteristics Capture "Where and When" on Video-based GIS — describes how GPS-enabled video and digital still cameras work Video Mapping Brings Maps to Life — describes how video maps are generated and discusses some applications of video mapping Creating Variable-Width Buffers http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic13/Topic13.htm Extending GIS Procedures with Variable-Width Buffers — discusses the basic considerations in establishing variable-width buffers that respond to both intervening conditions and the type of connectivity Line-of-Sight Buffers Add Intelligent to Maps — describes procedures for creating buffers that track relative visual exposure and noise levels Create Effective Distance Buffers to Improve Map Accuracy — develops procedures for creating buffers that respond to the relative ease of movement Deriving and Using Travel-Time Maps http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic14/Topic14.htm Use Travel-Time Buffers to Map Effective Proximity — discusses procedures for establishing travel-time buffers responding to street type. Integrate Travel-Time into Mapping Packages — describes procedures for transferring travel-time data to other maps. Derive and Use Hiking-Time Maps for Off-Road Travel — discusses procedures for establishing hiking-time buffers responding to off-road travel. Consider Slope and Scenic Beauty in Deriving Hiking Maps — describes a general procedure for weighting friction maps to reflect different objectives Deriving and Using Visual Exposure Maps http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic15/Topic15.htm Identify and Use Visual Exposure to Create Viewshed Maps — discusses basic considerations and procedures for establishing visual connectivity Use Exposure Maps and Fat Buttons to Assess Visual Impact — investigates procedures for assessing visual exposure Visual Exposure is in the Eye of the Beholder — describes procedures for assessing visual impact and creating simple models Use Maps to Assess Visual Vulnerability — discusses a procedure for identifying visually vulnerable areas Try Vulnerability Maps to Visualize Aesthetics — describes a procedure for deriving an aesthetics map based on visual exposure to pretty and ugly places Characterizing Patterns and Relationships http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic16/Topic16.htm GIS Represents Spatial Patterns and Relationships — discusses the important differences among discrete mapping , continuous map surfaces and map analysis Statistically Compare Discrete Maps — discusses procedures for comparing discrete maps Statistically Compare Continuous Map Surfaces — discusses procedures for comparing continuous map surfaces Geographic Software Removes Guesswork from Map Similarity — discusses basic considerations and procedures for generating similarity maps Use Similarity to Identify Data Zones — describes level-slicing for classifying areas into zones containing a specified data pattern Use Statistics to Map Data Clusters — discusses clustering for partitioning an are into separate data groups Spatial Data Mining “Down on the Farm” — discusses process for moving from Whole-Field to Site-Specific management Spatial Data Mining Allows Users to Predict Maps — describes the basic concepts and procedures for deriving equations that can be used to derive prediction maps Stratify Maps to Make Better Predictions — illustrates a procedure for subdividing an area into smaller more homogenous groups prior to generating prediction equations Applying Surface Analysis http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic17/Topic17.htm Use Travel Time to Identify Competition Zones — discusses the procedure for deriving relative travel-time advantage maps Maps and Curves Can Spatially Characterize Customer Loyalty — describes a technique for characterizing customer sensitivity to travel-time Grid-Based Mapping Identifies Customer Pockets and Territories — identifies techniques for identifying unusually high customer density and for delineating spatially balanced customer territories Use Travel Time to Connect with Customers — describes techniques for optimal path and catchment analysis Accumulation Surfaces Connect Bus Riders and Stops — discusses an accumulation surface analysis procedure for linking riders with bus stops Understanding Grid-based Data http://narod.yandex.ru/templ/selector.xhtml?0435574ad1286dc1c21&page_id=378451&template_id=&STATUS=EDIT Grids and Lattices Build Visualizations — describes Lattice and Grid forms of map surface display Maps Are Numbers First, Pictures Later — discusses the numeric and geographic characteristics of map values Normalizing Maps for Data Analysis — describes map normalization and data exchange with other software packages Multiple Methods Help Organize Raster Data — discusses different approaches to storing raster data Use Mapping “Art” to Visualize Values — describes procedures for generating contour maps What’s Missing in Mapping? — discusses the need for identifying data dispersion as well as average in Thematic Mapping Routing and Optimal Paths http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic19/Topic19.htm A Three-Step Process Identifies Preferred Routes — describes the basic steps in Least Cost Path analysis Consider Multi-Criteria When Routing — discusses the construction of a discrete “cost/avoidance” map and optimal path corridors A Recipe for Calibrating and Weighting GIS Model Criteria — identifies procedures for calibrating and weighting map layers in GIS models Think with Maps to Evaluate Alternative Routes — describes procedures for comparing routes ’Straightening’ Conversions Improve Optimal Paths — discusses a procedure for spatially responsive straightening of optimal paths Use LCP Procedures to Center Optimal Paths — discusses a procedure for eliminating “zig-zags” in areas of minimal siting preference Connect All the Dots to Find Optimal Paths — describes a procedure for determining an optimal path network from a dispersed set of end points Use Spatial Sensitivity Analysis to Assess Model Response — develops an approach for assessing the sensitivity of GIS models Least Cost Path Review — brief review of the LCP procedure for identifying optimal routes and corridors. Extended Experience Materials — provides hands-on experience with Optimal Path analysis Surface Flow Modeling http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic20/Topic20.htm Traditional Approaches Can’t Characterize Overland Flow — describes the basic considerations in overland flow Constructing Realistic Downhill Flows Proves Difficult — discusses procedures for characterizing path, sheet, horizontal and fill flows Use Available Tools to Calculate Flow Time and Quantity — discusses procedures for tracking flow time and quantity Migration Modeling Determines Spill Effect — describes procedures for assessing overland and channel flow impacts Human Dimensions of GIS http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic21/Topic21.htm An Experiential GIS — discusses a participatory GIS experience An Understanding GIS — describes the translation of mapped data to spatial information for decision-making Dreams and Nightmares Are Born of Frustration — identifies concerns with cost/benefit analysis of GIS GIS Is Never Having to Say You Are Sorry — discusses several human considerations in implementing GIS Reclassifying and Overlaying Maps http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic22/Topic22.htm Use a Map-ematical Framework for GIS Modeling — describes a conceptual structure for map analysis operations and GIS modeling Getting the Numbers Right — describes an alternative framework based on how the map values are retrieved to classify analytical operations. Options Seem Endless When Reclassifying Maps — discusses the basic reclassifying map operations Contiguity Ties Things Together — describes an analytical approach for determining effective contiguity (clumped features) Overlay Operations Feature a Variety of Options — discusses the basic overlaying map operations Computers Quickly Characterize Spatial Coincidence — discusses several human considerations in implementing GIS Key Concepts Characterize Unique Conditions — describes a technique for handling unique combinations of map layers Use “Shadow Maps” to Understand Overlay Errors — describes how shadow maps of certainty can be used to estimate error and its propagation Suitability Modeling http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic23/Topic23.htm Suitability Models Find the Good, the Bad and the Hugag — describes a simple suitability model for characterizing habitat Mapping Techniques Rate Hugag Habitat Suitability — expands discussion to Binary Progression and Rating suitability models Logic and Extent Elevate Suitability Models to New Levels — extends Rating discussion to include additional habitat considerations and model weighting Extended Experience Materials — provides hands-on experience with Suitability Modeling Overview of Spatial Analysis and Statistics http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic24/Topic24.htm Moving Mapping to Analysis of Mapped Data — describes Spatial Analysis and Spatial Statistics as extensions to traditional mapping and statistics Bending Our Understanding of Distance — uses effective distance in establishing erosion setback to demonstrate spatial analysis Use Spatial Statistics to Map Abnormal Averages — discusses surface modeling to characterize the spatial distribution inherent in a data set Making Space for Mapped Data — investigates the link between geographic space and data space for mapping data patterns Calculating Effective Distance and Connectivity http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic25/Topic25.htm Measuring Distance Is Neither Here nor There — discusses the basic concepts of distance and proximity Use Cells and Rings to Calculate Simple Proximity — describes how simple proximity is calculated Extend Simple Proximity to Effective Movement — discusses the concept of effective distance responding to relative and absolute barriers Calculate and Compare to Find Effective Proximity — describes how effective proximity is calculated Taking Distance to the Edge — discusses advance distance operations A Narrow-minded Approach — describes how Narrowness maps are derived Assessing Spatially-Defined Neighborhoods http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic26/Topic26.htm Computer Processing Aids Spatial Neighborhood Analysis — discusses approaches for calculating slope and profile Milking Spatial Context Information — describes a procedure for deriving a customer density surface Spatially Aggregated Reporting: The Probability is Good — discusses techniques for smoothing “salt and pepper” results and deriving probability surfaces from aggregated incident records Nearby Things Are More Alike — use of decay functions in weight-averaging surrounding conditions Filtering for the Good Stuff — investigates a couple of spatial filters for assessing neighborhood connectivity and variability GIS Evolution and Future Trends http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic27/Topic27.htm Early GIS Technology and Its Expression — traces the early phases of GIS technology (Computer Mapping, Spatial Database Management and Map Analysis/Modeling) Contemporary GIS and Future Directions — discusses contemporary GIS and probable future directions (Multimedia Mapping and Spatial Reasoning/Dialog) Pathways to GIS — explores different paths of GIS adoption for five disciplines (Natural Resources, Facilities Management, Public Health, Business and Precision Agriculture) A Multifaceted GIS Community — investigates the technical shifts and cultural impacts of the rapidly expanding GIS tent of users, application developers and tool programmers Innovation Drives GIS Evolution — discusses the cyclic nature of GIS innovation (Mapping, Structure and Analysis) GIS and the Cloud Computing Conundrum — describes cloud computing with particular attention to its geotechnology expression Visualizing a Three-dimensional Reality — uses visual connectivity to introduce and reinforce the paradigm of three-dimension geography Thinking Outside the Box — discusses concepts and configuration of 3-dimensional geography From a Map Pancake to Soufflé — continues the discussion of concepts and configuration of a 3D GIS Spatial Data Mining in Geo-Business http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic28/Topic28.htm Twisting the Perspective of Map Surfaces — describes the character of spatial distributions through the generation of a customer density surface Linking Numeric and Geographic Distributions — investigates the link between numeric and geographic distributions of mapped data Myriad Techniques Help to Interpolate Spatial Distributions — discusses the basic concepts underlying spatial interpolation Interpreting Interpolation Results (and why it is important) — describes the use of “residual analysis” for evaluating spatial interpolation performance Use Map Analysis to Characterize Data Groups — describes the use of “data distance” to derive similarity among the data patterns in a set of map layers Get “Map-ematical” to Identify Data Zones — describes the use of “level-slicing” for classifying locations with a specified data pattern (data zones) Discover the “Miracle” in Mapping Data Clusters — describes the use of “clustering” to identify inherent groupings of similar data patterns Can We Really Map the Future? — describes the use of “linear regression” to develop prediction equations relating dependent and independent map variables Follow These Steps to Map Potential Sales — describes an extensive geo-business application that combines retail competition analysis and product sales prediction For Project Geography http://homepage.smc.edu/drake_vicki/ Interesting Links http://www.gisjobs.com/survey/countries.jsp (GIS job opportunities, salary ranges, and more!) http://www.dcrp.ced.berkeley.edu/research/footprint/ (Berkeley/Penn State Data for Urban) ArcWatch online journal from ESRI ArcWatch [arcwatch@esri.com] www.esri.com (Data and ArcView support) www.usgs.gov (Data, DTMs, DEMs, geology links) http://www.geo-one-stop.gov/ (National Spatial Data Infrastructure (one-stop-shop) www.geodata.gov (Federal, State and Local gov''t geographic data) www.nwsla.noaa.gov/ (Current weather maps) http://gis.ca.gov/data.epl (California data sets for download!) http://www.gjc.org/ (Job opportunities in GIS) www.spatialnews.com (GIS data on the Web) www.gis.ca.gov (California GIS data –FREE!) http://geogratis.cgdi.gc.ca/ (GIS data on Canada – free!) http://mli.gov.mb.ca/ (Manitoba Land Initiative – GIS data – free!) www.nationalatlas.gov/atlasftp.html (GIS data on the Web) www.geog.mcgill.ca/heeslib/giS.html#data (GIS data warehouse on the Web) http://assessor.co.la.ca.us/html/gisdata.htm (GIS data for Los Angeles County) http://www.grida.no/add/add-data.htm (Arctic Environmental Data Directory) http://www.manifold.net (GIS Data - -not free!) http://www.mapcruzin.com (Environmental GIS data) http://www.gis.com/news/bulletin/. (Information about the world of GIS) http://www.ers.usda.gov/statefacts/ (State Fact Sheets database for US) http://data.geocomm.com/catalog/WW/group148.html (World Landsat Data) http://campus.esri.com/campus/library/research/researchgd_undergraduate.cfm. (ESRI virtual library site for GIS research, projects, publications) http://www.ca.blm.gov/folsom/folssp.html (Special Status Plants, Folsom Office, BLM) http://www.ca.blm.gov/bishop/specialstatusplantguide.html (Special Status Plants, Bishop Office, BLM) http://bio.lmu.edu/socal_nat_hist/plants/comms/plcomm.htm (Southern California Plant Communities) http://www.cnps.org/ (California Native Plant Society) http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/photos/flora/ (California vegetation photos) http://www.geocities.com/~jimclatfelter/wildflrs.html (California Wildflowers) http://www.calacademy.org/research/botany/wildflow/index.html (California Wildflowers) http://www.cnps.org/links/wildflower_links.htm (links to other California vegetation sites) http://www.ca.blm.gov/pa/aml/ (BLM Guide to Abandoned Mines in California) http://www.fourmilab.ch/earthview/vplanet.html (View of Earth from Space/Satellites/Sun/Moon) http://www.ca.blm.gov/photo. (BLM California Image Website) http://www.ca.blm.gov/arcata/arcermee.html (Photos of California endangered plant species) http://www.ca.blm.gov/caso/wf-map.html (Wildlife Watching Sites, courtesy of BLM) http://www.huduser.org/datasets/gis.html (HUD datasets) http://www.mapserver.maptech.com (Maptech has the largest, free, interactive MapServer that displays USGS topo maps (digitally enhanced from original USGS maps), NOAA nautical charts (digitally enhanced from original NOAA mylars), NOAA aeronautical charts and high altitude photos of the US. http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/scienceopticsu/powersof10/index.h (View the Earth from the Milky Way down to the Quarks on the nucleus of a Carbon atom!) http://www.nifc.gov/information.html - Wildfire statistics for United States and California Link to Special Data on Terrorism - New York and USGS data websites http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/internet/cartography.html (Resources for Cartography, Remote Sensing and GIS) http://www.geog.nottingham.ac.uk/~mather/useful/gis.html#Datasets (GIS Datasets) http://gos2.geodata.gov/wps/portal/gos (Earth Information Exchange Gateway - one stop for finding/using geographic data http://edc2.usgs.gov/terralook/ ( free access to satellite images!) http://www.taxfoundation.org/taxdata/ (Tax data for Federal, State, and local governments by state) http://www.sonoma.edu/users/c/clamatth/geog387/labs/lab2.html (Data Model exercise) Introduction to GIS and ArcView http://thoreau.dnr.state.mn.us/mis/gis/tools/arcview/Training/WebHelp/Courses/Intro/Section1/Ex1.html GIS@UD Documentation http://maps.rdms.udel.edu/gis/howtopages/arcgis.php GIS@UD Documentation Getting Started with ArcGIS 9.x ArcGIS Spacial Analusis http://www.esri.com/library/whitepapers/pdfs/arcgis_spatial_analyst.pdf Using Gis To Solve City Problems http://www.slideshare.net/aharrison88/using-gis-to-solve-city-problems University of Texas Center for Research in Water Resources IAPAD Modelling Processes Output http://www.digitalearth.cn/readingroom/basicreader/giscouse/u16.htm Compiled with assistance from Jeffrey L. Star, University of California at Santa Barbara A. INTRODUCTION Types of output B. TEXT OUTPUT Tables C. GRAPHIC OUTPUT Graphics peripherals Raster and vector devices D. HARDCOPY OUTPUT Line printers Dot matrix printers/plotters Pen plotters Optical scanners E. CRTS (CATHODE RAY TUBES) Storage tube technology Refresh image technology Color Bit planes and palettes 3-D display Memory and processing components F. GRAPHICS STANDARDS REFERENCES DISCUSSION AND EXAM QUESTIONS NOTES This is another unit that could be placed in several different locations within an introductory course. We have chosen to place it here as it falls within the topic of Using the GIS. However, you may find several other places for it. This unit should be illustrated with several examples of hardcopy and possibly "soft" output. Maps plotted by different types of plotters and printers would be especially useful. The slide set contains some examples of the hardware items described here. UNIT 16 - OUTPUT Compiled with assistance from Jeffrey L. Star, University of California at Santa Barbara A. INTRODUCTION output from GIS does not have to be a map in fact, many GIS are designed with poor map output capabilities Types of output text - tables, lists, numbers or text in response to query graphic - maps, screen displays, graphs, perspective plots digital data - on disk, tape or transmitted across a network other, not yet common computer-generated sound 3D images B. TEXT OUTPUT perhaps more important than maps for reporting results of analysis results might be a list or table of selected objects with attributes queries might result in numerical results, e.g. totals, distances, areas, counts text output might be delivered by voice generator, e.g. navigation instructions like "turn left at next traffic signal" Tables e.g. list of all cuttable areas of timber, giving area, species, age, estimate of yield in board feet list is not of great value without an accompanying map to identify each object in the list examples of specialized lists: personalized letter to be mailed to all households within 500 m of a planned expressway list of all hazardous materials stored within 100 m of a fire, transmitted by FAX to firetruck driving directions for a garbage collection route workorder and accompanying map and marked travel route for each service vehicle operated by utility company, giving day''s work locations, nature of work list and accompanying map of all city voting precincts ranked by degree of support for party in last election C. GRAPHIC OUTPUT Graphics peripherals provide graphic input and output of maps, diagrams and charts interactive graphics devices allow users to point to objects and identify them in their correct spatial context an early interactive version of the Space War computer game, developed at MIT in the early 1960s, ran on a PDP-1 computer using video displays television-like terminals became common in the early 1960''s, and are now the most common way users interact with computer systems in the next few sections we look at devices for graphic output and the ways their development has influenced GIS costs are approximate, correct to order of magnitude only Raster and vector devices graphic output devices can be classified into raster and vector groups raster devices build a picture by filling it with uniform picture elements, usually in rows e.g. line printers, dot matrix printers, scanners, most CRT terminals the elements of the picture are called pixels or pels resolution is sometimes expressed in megapels (approximately equal to 106 pixels) 640x480 pixel resolution is 0.3 megapels; 1280x1024 is 1.3 megapels vector devices build a picture by drawing lines, shading areas etc. e.g. plotters, storage tube CRT technology a raster device may be driven by vector commands, which it then converts for display, and vice versa conversion between raster and vector may thus occur at several points in a GIS between input and output Output D. HARDCOPY OUTPUT Line printers the first common device for computer output, cost $30,000 capable of printing 200-1,000 lines of text per minute each line composed of 132 characters in fixed positions entire line printed simultaneously by impact of hammers on ink ribbon limited set of printable characters image must be created row by row from the top drawbacks for graphical output because: rectangular cells resolution is fixed, e.g. 1/6 inch by 1/10 inch (4.2 mm by 2.5 mm) fixed cell location only limited set of characters can be printed difficult to draw continuous lines shades of grey must be generated by overprinting e.g. black = A + O + B + V + X results are best when viewed from a distance used as the output device for SYMAP, the earliest mapping package released in 1967 most useful for repeated mapping of statistics on a constant base, e.g. census atlas, weekly reports of crime statistics overhead - Line printer map Dot matrix printers/plotters image composed of rows of dots - often printed in blocks, e.g. 9 or 25 rows at a time to create shades of grey, control the fraction of dots which are printed in any small area the dots must be selected randomly, or "dithered", to avoid unwanted patterns early versions used hammers on ribbons for each dot - cost $500 more recent versions use lasers and xerography technology, resolutions up to 300 dots per inch - cost $2,000 color versions are available - squirt ink from jets of three or four primary colors - cost $2,000 electrostatic plotters use rows of dots, create images of map size - cost $40,000 Pen plotters create images by moving a pen under computer control most are incremental - draw a line using large numbers of movements of fixed size in fixed directions many have two motors, one for x and one for y get diagonal movement in only eight directions by using combinations of one or both motors however, step size is so small that lines appear to go equally easily in all directions diagram from a GIS perspective, an important advantage is the ability to plot on top of pre-printed base maps this avoids having to have all of the base map information in digital form Types of plotters lowest cost - $2,000 - are desktop size, take standard A4 or similar paper paper is flat pens can be changed automatically to generate different colors mid-range - $25,000 - are map size paper rolls over drum movement of pen is parallel to axis of drum second direction of movement is by rotating drum problems keeping paper in registration since it may move and stretch during construction of the map/graphic problems keeping pens moist during long plotting jobs typical plot jobs can last 3 to 6 hours top range - $100,000 are high precision used for drafting, map production usually flat ("flatbed"), medium held on exactly flat surface pen may be replaced by cutting tool on scribe coat demo - display a map from a plotter Optical scanners output on photographic paper paper mounted on inside of a rotating drum image created in helical fashion by rotating drum and moving light source along axis of drum common output devices for remote sensing, image processing other devices output directly to 35 mm slide film E. CRTS (CATHODE RAY TUBES) earliest (ca. 1968) could display rows of characters in fixed positions, little use for showing maps or images Storage tube technology Tektronix introduced terminals based on storage tube technology ca. 1970 major breakthrough in low-cost graphic display ($5,000) images drawn by moving electron beam over screen under computer control image is permanent, not refreshed, so must be erased completely - no selective deletion possible Refresh image technology terminals with refreshed images began to replace storage tube technology ca. 1975 significantly lower cost image redrawn from internal memory 25-50 times per second image created by lighting dots in fixed positions resolution determined by number of rows and columns of dots - some common screen resolutions: IBM PC Color Graphics Adapter (CGA) - 320x200 Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) - 640x350 Video Graphics Array (VGA) - 640x480 1280x1024 is a common resolution for high quality graphics Color color is created by using groups of 3 dots, glowing red, green and blue respectively when illuminated by different electron guns different percentages of illumination create different colors overhead - Colors for RGB Bit planes and palettes recall from Unit 3: a bit is a unit of computer storage - it can be on or off a byte is a group of 8 bits a K (kilo) is 1024 - 64K bytes equals 65,536 bytes to display a black and white image, the terminal or display adapter must have one bit of storage per pixel 320x200 or 64,000 bits or 8,000 bytes for a CGA monochrome image to display color we use several bits per pixel 2 bits can have 4 combinations of on and off, so can display any of 4 colors to display any of 16 colors requires 4 bits per pixel if there are 4 bits per pixel, we say there are 4 bit planes a device with 20 bit planes (common for high resolution graphics) can display any of 220 colors in each pixel hint: to convert powers of 2 to powers of 10 approximately, multiply the exponent by 0.3 - 220 is about 106 or 1,000,000 - in fact 1,048,576 the number of bit planes determines how many colors can be displayed simultaneously this may be different from the number of possible colors e.g. the VGA has 4 bit planes, allows simultaneous display of 16 colors, but these can be defined using any combination of 64 levels of red, 64 of green and 64 of blue, for a total of 262,144 possible colors the limited set of colors chosen at any one time is called the palette the storage requirements of a VGA adapter (4 bit planes, 640x480 resolution) are 4x640x480 = 1,228,800 bits = 153,600 bytes = 150 Kbytes the requirements for a 20 bit plane, 1280x1024 device are 20x1280x1024 = 26,214,400 bits = 3,276,800 bytes = 3200 Kbytes 3-D display some vendors are now offering 3-D stereo display devices these create the illusion of depth by rapidly switching between two images, one for the left eye and one for the right a filter in front of the screen polarizes the images differently the user wears eyeglasses containing clear polarizing filters because each of the two images must be refreshed 25-50 times/second, the display must operate at 50-100 images/second Memory and processing components 1. Object memory some display devices have an optional local object memory to store the entire set of objects/vectors in the image to be displayed (often called "display list") allows rapid redisplay of objects without new input most useful for pan or zoom, or rotation of 3-D objects 2. Vector-raster converter since display is always by pixels it is necessary to compute raster images from vector input e.g. which dots must be turned on to display this line? 3. Display memory stores the color number to be displayed in each pixel 4. Color lookup table identifies the combination of red, green and blue corresponding to each color in the current palette by changing the color lookup table, can produce very rapid changes of color patterns on the screen without affecting display memory 5. Digital/analog (D/A) converter converts the digital signal stored in display memory to a voltage applied to the CRT F. GRAPHICS STANDARDS the large number of graphics input and output peripherals have a confusing array of data requirements the instructions sent to a laser printer may have nothing in common with those sent to create the same picture on a desktop plotter there have been many attempts to create standards for communicating with devices the format used by the early Tektronix storage tube terminals has been extended many times but is still widely used - known as Tektronix or 4010 format many devices recognize the format established by Hewlett-Packard and known as HPGL several companies have introduced common formats and provided "drivers" to convert these for specific devices, e.g. DI-3000 and DISSPLA the most successful recent format is PostScript, recognized by a large number of output devices The PPGID wen ring Towards Virtual Reality GIS http://www.ifp.uni-stuttgart.de/publications/phowo05/340haala.pdf GIS, Virtual Reality and Real-Time Simulation http://proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/proc01/professional/papers/pap105/p105.htm Constructing virtual environment for flight simulators based on digital map http://www.byoo.net/publications/korean-journals/constructingvirtualenvironmentforflightsimulatorsbasedondigitalmap Towards the Virtual City:VR & Internet GIS for Urban Planning http://www.casa.ucl.ac.uk/martin/tmp/html_version/vrcity.html Georeferenced four-dimensional virtual environments: principles and applications http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V9K-3VWFP41-2&_user=5719616&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000068207&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=5719616&md5=7fbd9e86d9da24de2207b58e812c3a8f GIS DATA SHARING http://www.wthtechnology.com/GIS/sharing_data.htm The Need for Data Sharing As the use of GIS has spread, there has been a corresponding demand for connecting users and sharing GIS information. This includes horizontal data sharing between various departments, between organizations within a county, or between adjacent jurisdictions. It also includes vertical data sharing between local, state and federal levels. Data Sharing Issues Advances in the Internet and related technologies have made it possible to share current GIS information from its original source to remote users on a 24 hour basis. This has led to new standards for documenting data, new encryption technologies to keep data secure, and new national interoperability standards allowing the GIS software of different vendors to share GIS information. State-of-the-Art Data Sharing Software WTH''s data sharing history grew out of the need for local government information to be shared between departments, the need for various government entities to share public safety information, and the need to provide service and support to remote users. This led to the development of the WTH’s state-of-the-art, patent-pending data sharing software called UDX™. UDX™ uses Microsoft .Net™ architecture for maximum interoperability. UDX™ allows for the dynamic and continuous updating of encrypted GIS information on a feature by feature basis in the format and projection of the particular user. The software has built in data quality features including password protected data entry, comprehensive data tracking, and the recording and monitoring of data currency. Whether using a Desktop, Mobile, or WebGIS application, GIS information is automatically updated by UDX™ without any additional action required by the user. GIS Data Sharing http://www.wlia.org/resources/datasharingfloods.pdf GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS Challenges to Effective Data Sharing http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03874t.pdf GIS and spatial decision support system DSS and SDSS http://www.iwaponline.com/jh/007/0165/0070165.pdf Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been widely used for spatial data manipulation for hydrologic model operations and as a supporting tool to develop spatial decision support systems (SDSS). Information technologies, including GIS and the Internet, have provided opportunities to overcome many of the limitations of computer-based models in terms of data preparation and visualisation, and provide the possibility to create integrated SDSS. This paper examines the relationship between changes in GIS technology and watershed management SDSS. It also describes a conceptual web-based SDSS framework in terms of system components and data flow. A prototype watershed management web-based SDSS that utilises the conceptual framework is examined (URL: http://pasture.ecn.purdue.edu/ , watergen/owls). The SDSS uses web-GIS for watershed delineation, map interfaces and data preparation routines, a hydrologic model for hydrologic/water quality impact analysis and web communication programs for Internet-based system operation. The web-based SDSS can be helpful for watershed management decision-makers and interested stakeholders. The watershed management SDSS also provides insight into the role of GIS and information technologies in creating readily accessible and useable SDSS capabilities. Key words | decision support system, hydrologic model, Internet GIS, watershed management A Remote Sensing and GIS-assisted Spatial Decision Support System for Hazardous Waste Site Monitoring http://people.cas.sc.edu/hodgsonm/Published_Articles_PDF/PE&RS_Jensen%20et%20al_SDSS_SRP_2009.pdf Spatial Decision Support Systems SDSS http://www.impetus.uni-koeln.de/en/project/concepts/sdss-basics.html Modern Spatial Decision Support Systems (SDSSs) combine tools and analysis functionalities of DSS, GIS, remote sensing (RS), and numerical models based on expert knowledge. Within IMPETUS a platform independent SDSS-design and -development approach is established by using Geotools (OpenGIS), ArcGIS Engine (ESRI®) and Java. With the computer-based SDSSs, the user is able to visualize and analyze (geo-)data and models based on a question-specific decision tree. Before focusing on SDSS it is necessary to point out the term Decision Support System (DSS). The relevant scientific literature does not show a consistent definition of a DSS. However, a DSS can be considered as a computer based system which allows the user to solve semi-structural processes by using comprehensive datasets and analytical models. This definition points out that the applied resolution methods of a DSS are not trivial at all. In general, a complex DSS is an interdisciplinary solution. Hence, the overall approach of such a system consists in making numerous different methods and analysis available. Therefore the need of a similar consideration of data visualization, interpretation and evaluation is essential. As soon as spatial data is implemented in a DSS, GIS functionalities get an important role. These functions enable the user to generate spatially diverse decisions. In this context the term Spatial DSS (SDSS) is established in the 1990s . Such SDSSs provide the opportunity to integrate various analytical models, visualize and evaluate the used models and develop management strategies. Modern SDSSs combine functionalities and modules of GIS, DSS, RS, models and expert knowledge. Furthermore, these systems allow the loose coupling of numerical, statistical or knowledge based expert-models, to meet the requirements of being all-inclusive decision support tools. Fig. 1 shows the configuration of a modern SDSS. Consequently, such a system contains data and analysis functions of GIS, RS, DSS, and models and depends on given expert knowledge. To generate a SDSS with these topics, it is essential to implement a Modelbase Management System (MBMS) as well as a Database Management System (DBMS). Using a GIS as a DSS Generator http://mis.ucd.ie/staff/pkeenan/gis_as_a_dss.html This paper discusses the use of a Geographic Information System (GIS) as a Decision Support System (DSS) What is a SDSS and how is it different from a GIS? http://geospatial.nomad-labs.com/2009/03/03/what-is-a-sdss-and-how-is-it-different-from-a-gis/ In order to understand SDSS and know the difference between GIS and SDSS it is important to understand what a GIS is. GIS is a piece of software that can perform generic spatial analysis and geoprocessing methods on geographic data. It requires an GIS Analyst or an expert to operate it. In contrast a Spatial Decision Support System is a domain or an industry specific software. It doesn’t require a GIS expert to operate but rather a domain expert. As the name suggests the software provides decision support but to do so makes use of spatial analysis, geo-statistics, geo-processing or other tools from spatial information sciences. To begin with a SDSS must be designed to answer some domain specific questions that have strong elements of geography. This is best illustrated through an example: say, in coordinating the containment of a bush fire a sector coordinator needs to decide on where to deploy bulldozers to create a containment line or a barrier to the advancing fire-front. The job of the software is to provide the coordinator with a number of alternative answers that they can choose from based on their experience. In this instance the SDSS will take into consideration a number of information sources, perform a combination of spatial analysis and use sophisticated fire modeling to determine answers. From the above example it is clear that a Spatial DSS must have access to relevant up-to-date spatial data, contain algorithms from spatial information science and domain-specifc models to answer domain-specific questions and a method for visualizing the answers. So for the sector coordinator the relevant data required would be topography, vegetation fuel maps, weather forecast, real-time weather measurements, verbal information from lookout towers and/or air surveillance, satellite reconnaissance, information from thermal cameras. All this would need to be geo-referenced and lie with in the spatial extent of her sector. Next component is the algorithms that will convert raw data into useful knowledge. It is important to note that data and algorithms are closely linked since some of the data sources may be derivative products. For example vegetation fuel map may have been derived by applying a Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) algorithm to multispectral remotely sensed satellite imagery. Another example may have an algorithm to convert topography into slope. This slope may be used to rule out areas that are too steep for bulldozers to operate. This nicely leads us to the related component of domains-specific models. In this case the information from the slope, weather conditions (such as wind direction and humidity) as well as the vegetation fuel data may form inputs into a fire-model that predicts the future course of the fire. This information may then be combine with areas where bulldozers can operate to give deployment alternatives to the coordinator. In a SDSS the above process would form a seamless chain of inputs and give an output. While in a GIS the above would be done by an expert spatial analyst who must be aware of all the pitfalls of combining different spatial data and deal with spatial coordinate systems. But above all a GIS will lack the modeling capability to predict the future course of the fire let alone understand what a bulldozer is. This brings us to another important difference between a GIS and SDSS. SDSS must deal with semantic information. In a SDSS spatial data cannot exist in isolation from its meaning. Use of GIS Mapping and Decision Tools http://www.rwjf.org/qualityequality/product.jsp?id=34022 E -Parcipation System Citizen participation and Internet GIS—Some recent advances http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V9K-4H8FPGN-1&_user=5719616&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000068207&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=5719616&md5=ac5dc42335d83df20f7d9bede4a62a77 E-Parcipation Tools are - map navigation by zooming and panning -display or removal of selected map layers -queries -discussions created by clicking on the location PPGIS David Rumsey Historical Maps DATA QUALITY, GIS PROJECTS AND MANAGEMENT CSISS''Recire'' for creating a choroplet map in Arc/GIS Cartogram Types USGS National Map Viewer Digimap links |
