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Oceanology The Sea Floor & Plate Tectonics General differences in rock type & density of oceanic vs. continental crust Mantle convection process driving sea-floor spreading & plate motion Tectonic plates & relationship to deep & shallow earthquakes 3 types of plate boundaries, their relative plate motion & extent of quake & volcano activity Subduction, crust density, trenches & sediments Differences between hot spot and islands arc volcano chains Characteristics & examples of 2 types of continental margins Origins & general locations of canyons, continental rises, seamounts, abyssal plains & hills Origin & results of turbidity currents General locations & origins of hydrothermal vents & Lost City Geochemical processes creating hydrothermal vents & Lost City Water: water molecule The Water Molecule. Water is a remarkable substance that is important not only as a source of moisture, but also as a means of transferring energy in the atmosphere. Water is the only common substance that is liquid at ordinary temperatures on the earth, but it is also found in all three physical states, solid, liquid, and vapor, at various places on the earth''s surface, and sometimes in the same place at the same time (think of an iceberg floating in the ocean, with water vapor in the surrounding air). Water: water molecule Be able to explain: uniqueness of water molecule and how this alters it physical and chemical properties difference between acid and base and their relationship to water differences among various physical states of dihydrogen oxide latent vs. sensible heat and the hydrogen bond density of water and how it is altered by various factors materials contained in sea water difference between chlorinity and salinity and significance of principle of constant proportion variation in salinity in the sea and how the properties of sea water differs from fresh water variable concentration of gases in the sea formation of oxygen minimum zone its impact on organisms and division of water by oxygen content CO2 in the sea, how its concentration alters seas ability to dissolve or precipitate CaCO3 how carbonic acid acts as a buffer alteration of light in the ocean and factors controlling its entry and depth of penetration division of ocean by light penetration development and significance of the thermocline, halocline and pycnocline and division of water column based upon each of them alteration of sound waves in the ocean and resulting phenomena (sound channel; shadow zone) development of ice in the sea; various types of ice found in the sea and where they occur Diagrams to be able to label and explain: parts of water molecule and water molecule hexagons main water layers in the ocean as defined by temperature, salinity, density, light and sound A chemist''s view of water Water: water molecule ABOUT WATER AND ICE Water:Chemical bond Hydrogen bond Water: Properties and Behavior Geography of Earth & Oceans Latitude & longitude Properties of Water Structure of water molecule: polarity, hydrogen bonds, effects on water as a solvent and on freezing Latent heat of fusion & vaporization & physical explanation Effects of latent heat on heat transport between ocean & atmosphere & within atmosphere Definition of density, density of ice vs. water Physical meaning of temperature & heat Heat capacity of water & why water requires a lot of heat gain or loss to change temperature Effects of heating & cooling on density of water, and physical explanation Difference in albedo of ice/snow vs. water, and effects on Earth temperature Properties of Seawater Definitions of salinity, conservative & non-conservative seawater constituents, density (sigma-t) Average ocean salinity & how it is measured 3 technology systemss for monitoring ocean salinity and other properties 6 most abundant constituents of seawater & Principle of Constant Proportions Effects of freezing on seawater Effects of temperature & salinity on density, T-S diagram Processes that increase & decrease salinity & temperature and where they occur Generalized depth profiles of temperature, salinity, density & ocean stratification & stability Generalized depth profiles of O2 & CO2 and processes determining these profiles Forms of dissolved inorganic carbon in seawater and their buffering effect on pH of seawater Water Properties and Climate Change 2 main causes of global sea level rise, 2 main causes of local sea level rise Physical properties of water that affect sea level rise Icebergs & sea ice: Differences in sources, and effects of freezing & melting on sea level How heat content of upper ocean & Arctic sea ice extent have changed since about 1970s Invasion of fossil fuel CO2 in the oceans and effects on pH The Chemistry of Water as a polar molecule Water is polar because it is a highly electronegative oxygen boded to two weakly electronegative hydrogens. This causes something called an induction effect in which the oxygen atom has the tendency of pulling a large number of electrons towards itself due to it''s high affinity for electrons thus inducing a permanent dipole. The electron rich oxygen has the partial negative charge of the dipole while the hydrogens bear the partial positive charge of the dipole. This causes water to be polar Polar Bonds of Water Polar Covalent Bonds Cohesion (chemistry) Cohesion (n. lat. cohaerere "stick or stay together") or cohesive attraction or cohesive force is a physical property of a substance, caused by the intermolecular attraction between like-molecules within a body or substance that acts to unite them. Water, for example, is strongly cohesive as each molecule may make four hydrogen bonds to other water molecules in a tetrahedral configuration. This results in a relatively strong Coulomb force between molecules. Van der Waals gases such as methane, however, have weak cohesion due only to Van der Waals forces that operate by induced polarity in non-polar molecules. Water: CHEMISTRY FOR BIOLOGY INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY of LIFE Water molecule Water: The Chemistry of Microbiology Water: Capillary Action Properties of Water Water: by Stephen T. Abedon The Oceanic Heat Budget Water, Seawater and Ocean Circulation and Dynamics Water - origin and properties Oceanigraphy/UCLA Oceanography at Palomar College Oceanographers Oceanographers are individuals highly trained in one of the basic scientific disciplines: biology, physics, geology, chemistry, mathematics, engineering, or a combination of these fields. It is inevitable that an oceanographer will become deeply involved with all sciences. Preparation for a career in oceanography should begin as early as possible with a concentration in one scientific discipline. In high school, you should plan your studies around college-preparatory courses including math, English, science, and foreign languages. In college, you should choose a basic field of science in which to earn your first academic degree. In graduate school, you may adapt your studies to the marine environment. Intensive training in basic science is necessary so that you may apply this knowledge and skill to the study of the oceans. Job http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=oceanography+jobs&aq=2&oq=oceanography Many people associate careers in oceanography as consisting of swimming with marine animals at a marine life park or snorkeling in crystal-clear tropical waters studying coral reefs. In reality, these kinds of jobs are extremely rare and there is intense competition for the few jobs that do exist. Most oceanographers work in fields that use science to solve a particular problem in the ocean. Some examples include: What is the role of the ocean in limiting the greenhouse effect? What kinds of pharmaceuticals can be found naturally in marine organisms? How does sea-floor spreading relate to the movement of tectonic plates? What economic deposits are there on the sea floor? Can rogue waves be predicted? What is the role of longshore transport in the distribution of sand on the beach? How does a particular pollutant affect organisms in the marine environment? Preparation for a Career in Oceanography Preparing yourself for a career in oceanography is probably one of the most interesting and rewarding (yet difficult) paths to travel. The study of oceanography is typically divided into different academic disciplines (or sub-fields) of study. The four main disciplines of oceanography are: Geological oceanography is the study of the structure of the sea floor and how the sea floor has changed through time; the creation of sea floor features; and the history of sediments deposited on it. Chemical oceanography is the study of the chemical composition and properties of seawater; how to extract certain chemicals from seawater; and the effects of pollutants. Physical oceanography is the study of waves, tides, and currents; the ocean-atmosphere relationship that influences weather and climate; and the transmission of light and sound in the oceans. Biological oceanography is the study of the various oceanic life forms and their relationships to one another; adaptations to the marine environment, and developing ecologically sound methods of harvesting seafood. Geological oceanographers and geophysicists explore the ocean floor and map submarine geologic structures. Studies of the physical and chemical properties of rocks and sediments give us valuable information about Earths history. The results of their work help us understand the processes that created the ocean basins and the interactions between the ocean and the sea floor. Sources of Information Consult the catalog of any college or university that offers a curriculum in oceanography or marine science. The Oceanography Society publishes an excellent brochure entitled Careers in Oceanography and Marine-Related Fields. The Oceanography Society can be contacted at 4052 Timber Ridge Drive, Virginia Beach, VA 23455 and their telephone number is (804) 464-0131. The National Sea Grant College Program of NOAA publishes a comprehensive brochure entitled Marine Science Careers: A Sea Grant Guide to Ocean Opportunities, which includes interviews with working oceanographers. The Sea Grant College can be reached c/o NOAA, SSMC3 Room 11606, 1315 East-West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910 and their telephone number is (301) 713-2431. The Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California, San Diego publishes an informative brochure aimed at perspective students entitled Preparing for a Career in Oceanography. General information about Scripps can be obtained by contacting the Scripps Communication Office at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive Department 0233, La Jolla, CA 92093-0233 and their telephone number is (619) 534-3624. Some Web sites that contain oceanography career information on-line: The International Oceanographic Foundation at: http://www.rsmas.miami.edu/iof/ The U.S. Navys web site on careers in oceanography at: http://www.cnmoc.navy.mil/educate/career-o.htm or http://www.oc.nps.navy.mil/careers.html The Office of Naval Researchs web site, which includes The Oceanography Societys brochure entitled Careers in Oceanography and Marine-Related Fields at: http://www.onr.navy.mil/onr/careers/default.htm A comprehensive list of information about careers in oceanography, marine science, and marine biology is available through the Scripps Institution of Oceanography Science Librarys web site at: http://scilib.ucsd.edu/sio/guide/career.html, including a popular "So You Want to Become a Marine Biologist" web site at: http://www-siograddept.ucsd.edu/Web/To_Be_A_Marine_Biologist.html A listing of marine laboratories and institutions is available at: http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/marinebio/mblabs.html The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution has developed a web site devoted to the advancements of women in oceanography. It features biographies and unique perspectives of women scientists, and is at: http://www.womenoceanographers.org. Physical oceanography Global Ocean Heat Content National Oceanographic Data Center Ocean Water: Temperature - Scales SURFACE WATER TEMPERATURES UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Temperature, Salinity, and Density http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/ocng_textbook/chapter06/chapter06_05.htm Ocean Water: Density Physical Oceanography: Density Dynamics Key words: density, stratification, turnover, water properties, ocean circulation, deep water formation, aquatic ecosystems water mass body of ocean water with a distinctive narrow range of temperature and salinity and a particular density resulting from these two parameters. Water masses are formed as the result of climatic effects in specific regions. Antarctic bottom water is an important water mass that forms on the Antarctic continental shelf as a cold, dense residual brine during the formation of sea ice. Its salinity of 34.62 parts per thousand and temperature of -1.9 C (28.6 F) result in a high density of 1.02789 grams per cubic centimetre, causing it to sink and flow northward along the bottom into the southern oceans. Mediterranean water is another example of a water mass. Excessive evaporation, low rainfall, and high temperatures continually generate large volumes of warm (11.9 C), salty (36.5 parts per thousand) water. Its density of 1.02778 causes it to sink to the bottom of the Mediterranean and overflow across the submarine sill at the Strait of Gibraltar, whence it sinks and spreads at a depth of about 1,000 metres (3,300 feet) in the Atlantic. Envirinmental Oceanography: Water Composition density: relationship to temperature in water Sea Water, Freezing of Thermocline oceanic water layer in which water temperature decreases rapidly with increasing depth. A widespread permanent thermocline exists beneath the relatively warm, well-mixed surface layer, from depths of about 200 m (660 feet) to about 1,000 m (3,000 feet), in which interval temperatures diminish steadily. The deep waters below the thermocline layer decrease in temperature much more gradually toward the seafloor. In latitudes marked by distinct seasons, a seasonal thermocline at much shallower depths forms during the summer as a result of solar heating, and it is destroyed by diminished insolation and increased surface turbulence during the winter. Water density is governed by temperature and salinity; consequently, the thermocline coincides generally with the pycnocline, or layer in which density increases rapidly with depth. The middle layer of water in a lake or reservoir during the summer is also called a thermocline. Thermocline a transition layer between deep and surface water Temperature Change Versus Heat Added: Water The graph represents the temperature change that occurs when heat is added to water. At 0 C and at 100 C, you can add heat to water without changing its temperature. This latent heat breaks bonds that hold the molecules together but does not increase their kinetic energy. Note that approximately seven times more heat must be added to evaporate one gram of water than to melt it. This is represented by the relative lengths of the horizontal portions of the graph. The slopes of the inclined lines represent the number of degrees that the temperature changes for each calorie of heat that is added to one gram. The reciprocal of this number is the amount of heat that must be added to make the temperature of one gram change by one degree. This is called the specific heat. Ice crystal Ice The Water Cycle: Evaporation Evaporation Vaporization Latent Heat of Vaporization Global Thermostatic Effects www.msmacsclass.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2008/11/chapter6-section-3-global-thermostatic-effects.ppt - Global warming When describing the Global Warming of Planet Earth, one should start by noting something called "heat balance". Most objects that are warmer than their surroundings will radiate heat energy, and thereby become cooler. Half the Earth does this every night, when it is exposed to a region of Outer Space that doesn''t have the Sun shining in it. And, of course, an object that is cooler than its surroundings tends to absorb heat. The average temperature of an object depends on the RATES of absorption and radiation, over the long run. Please note that one aspect of a hot object is that it also radiates faster than a merely warm object. Two objects that absorb heat at different rates will maintain (a long-run average of) different temperatures, simply because they will also radiate at different rates. That is the essence of heat balance. Sea water Layed Ocean, high latitude ocean, Ocean Water Thermal Properties and high thermal inertia Ocean''s Vertical Structure the density structure of ocean UPPER OCEAN VERTICAL STRUCTURE surface zone,mixed layer,pycnocline, deep zone, halocline, refraction, light and sound.Scattering,absorption,photic zone,aphotic zone.Relationship between water deepth and sound velocity. Sofar layer. Sonar. the complex relationship among the temperature, salinity, and density in seawater http://www.geo.hunter.cuny.edu/~hsalmun/geol180web/lecturesppt/chapt06.ppt#355,19,Slide 19 typical temperature profiles at polar, and mid-latitudes Mars Atmosphere: Modeling and Observations Glossary Terms to know: bonding covalent bond ionic bond water molecule dihydrogen oxide dipole molecule dipole moment hydrogen bond acid hydrogen ion base hydroxyl ion water vapor condensation evaporation boiling unstructured water structured water hexagon dynamic equilibrium freezing melting ice heat sensible heat latent heat temperature thermometer calorie latent heat of freezing/melting latent heat of vaporization latent heat of condensation density density stratified system pure water sea water resident time principle of constant proportions chlorinity ppt, o/oo salinity steady state condition osmotic pressure osmosis saturation value undersaturated saturated supersaturated photosynthesis oxygen minimum zone depauperate fauna oxygenated dysoxic anoxic carbon dioxide carbonate ion bicarbonate ion carbonic acid buffer active precipitation passive precipitation stramatolites ooids wave length penetration absorption coefficient electromagnetic spectrum colour photic zone euphotic zone dysphotic zone aphotic zone radiation conduction thermocline tropical subtropical temperate subpolar polar surface layer deep layer halocline surface zone pycnocline deep zone sound reflection echo refraction interface shadow zone sound channel SOFAR channel sound strength scattering deep scattering layer sonar spicules cells brine sea ice pancake ice pack ice ice floes fringe ice land ice ice shelf ice berg tabular berg pinnacle berg spurs growler ice breaker Ocean Mixed Layer Ocean Water: Optics The first zone, or euphotic zone, extends from the water''s surface to about 50 meters depth,The next zone is the dysphotic zone, which extends from about 50 meters, or wherever the euphotic zone ends, to about 1,000 meters.Once we reached the aphotic zone, there would be no light. This zone extends from about 1,000 meters depth to the ocean bottom. Animals in this zone are rare, but they do exist. Density of Ocean Water A pycnocline is a rapid change in water density with depth. In freshwater environments such as lakes this density change is primarily caused by water temperature, while in seawater environments such as oceans the density change may be caused by changes in water temperature and/or salinity. Pycnoclines tend to disappear at around 50 or 60 degrees North or South Latitude. This is due to lowered salinity and temperature change near the poles. in geology, boundary separating two liquid layers of different densities. In oceans a large density difference between surface waters (or upper 100 metres [330 feet]) and deep ocean water effectively prevents vertical currents; the one exception is in polar regions where pycnocline is absent. Formation of pycnocline may result from changes in salinity or temperature. Because the pycnocline zone is extremely stable, it acts as a barrier for surface processes. Thus changes in salinity or temperature are very small below pycnocline, but are seasonal in surface waters. The Deep Waters of the Ocean The temperature of the ocean decreases and decreases as you go to the bottom of the ocean. So, the density of ocean water increases and increases as you go to the bottom of the ocean. The deep ocean is layered with the densest water on bottom and the lightest water on top. Circulation in the depths of the ocean is horizontal. That is, water moves along the layers with the same density. Surface Ocean Currents Halocline a halocline is a strong, vertical salinity gradient. Because salinity (in concert with temperature) affects the density of seawater, it can play a role in its vertical stratification. Increasing salinity by one kg/m3 results in an increase of seawater density of around 0.7 kg/m3. vertical zone in the oceanic water column in which salinity changes rapidly with depth, located below the well-mixed, uniformly saline surface water layer. Especially well developed haloclines occur in the Atlantic Ocean, in which salinities may decrease by several parts per thousand from the base of the surface layer to depths of about one kilometre (3,300 feet). In higher latitudinal areas of the North Pacific in which solar heating of the surface waters is low and rainfall is abundant, salinities increase markedly with depth through the halocline layer. Pycnoclines, or layers through which water density increases rapidly with depth, accompany such haloclines inasmuch as density varies directly with total salt content. Salt water is more dense than fresh water, and so light rays are diffracted when they pass through the halocline. This can give rise to a range of unusual visual effects. P.P.Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IO RAS) The P.P.Shirshov Institute of Oceanology Index of Refraction of Water Light and Sound in the Ocean Amount of light entering the ocean depends upon the height of the sun above the horizon and the smoothness of the sea surface 65% of light entering the ocean is absorbed within the first metre and converted into heat. Only 1% of light entering the ocean reaches 100m Water displays the selective absorption of light with long wavelengths absorbed first and short wavelengths absorbed last In the open ocean, blue light penetrates the deepest In turbid coastal waters, light rarely penetrates deeper than 20 m and the water appears yellow to green because particles reflect these wavelengths The photic zone is the part of the water column penetrated by sunlight The aphotic zone is the part of the water column below light penetration and permanently dark Speed of sound The speed of sound in water increases as salinity, temperature and pressure increase, but in the ocean is mainly a function of temperature and pressure Above the pycnocline, increasing pressure with depth increases the speed of sound despite the gradual decrease in temperature Within the pycnocline, the speed of sound decreases rapidly because of the rapid decrease in temperature and only slight increase in pressure Below the pycnocline, the speed of sound gradually increases because pressure continues to increase, but temperature only declines slightly SOFAR channel is located where sound speed is at a minimum. Refraction of sound waves within the channel prevents dispersion of the sound energy and sound waves travel for thousands of km within the channel The Institute of Oceanology of the Polish Academy of Sciences History of Russian Underwater Acoustics scattering and reflection of sound Oceanology: water and acoustic, absorption,photic zone,aphotic zone. Jet Stream Ch6:ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION COAST Ocean Glossary albedo.htm angle_of_incidence.htm atoll.htm barrier_reef.htm beacon.htm bergy_bits.htm boundary_currents.htm buoy.htm calving.htm carbon_dioxide.htm castle_berg.htm coral.htm coral_polyp.htm coral_reef.htm coriolis_effect.htm crest.htm current.htm deep_ocean_circulation.htm deep_water_waves.htm density.htm doppler_shift.htm downwelling.htm eccentricities.htm eddies.htm ekman_layer.htm ekman_spiral.htm ekman_transport.htm elnino.htm enso.htm equigeopotential_surfaces.htm equinox.htm eularian_velocity.htm fetch.htm fish_stock.htm fringing_reef.htm fully_developed_sea.htm geoid.htm geostrophic_flow.htm geosynchronous_transfer_orbit.htm glacial_ice.htm glaciers.htm global_conveyor_belt.htm greenhouse_effect.htm greenhouse_gas.htm growler.htm gulf_stream.htm gyre.htm hatchery.htm heat_budget.htm heat_transport.htm horizontal_pressure_gradient.htm hydrosphere.htm ice_core.htm ice_sheet.htm igneous_rouk.htm infrared.htm interglacial_period.htm kelp.htm labrador_current.htm lagoon.htm lagrangian_velocity.htm larva.htm low_earth_orbit.htm mangrove.htm meridional_overturning_circulation.htm migrate.htm mollusk.htm mountain_valley_glacier.htm nansen_bottle.htm original_sea_state.htm overfishing.htm paleoclimate.htm perihelion.htm photosynthesis.htm planula.htm polyp.htm precession.htm predation.htm red_tide.htm salinity.htm satellite.htm sea_surface_height.htm sedimentary_rock.htm shallow_water_waves.htm stratification.htm symbiosis.htm thermohaline_circulation.htm tide_gauge.htm topography.htm trade_wind.htm trough.htm tsunami.htm turbulence.htm undercurrent.htm upwelling.htm wave_height.htm wave_length.htm wave_period.htm wind_belt.htm wind_duration.htm wind_velocity.htm zooxanthellae.htm WAVES TIDES COASTS AND SHORE Life in the ocean Pelagic Communities Bentic Communities Marine Resources |
