LIFE IN THE OCEAN

Grafical material CHAPTER AT A GLANCE UNITY and DIVERSITY ENERGY and MARINE LIFE Primary Productivity Feeding (Trophic) Relationship PHYSICAL FACTORS AFFECTING MARINE LIFE Light Temperature Dissolved Nutrients Salinity Dissolved Gases Acid-Based Balance Hydrostatic Pressure CLASSIFICATION OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT CLASSIFICATION OF OCEANOC LIFE Systems of Classification Names MARINE COMMUNITIES Organisms within Communities Competition Change in Marine Communities MASS EXTINCTIONS The oceanic environment because of waterбпs unique physical properties – its density, its dissolving power, its ability to absorb large quantities of heat yet very little in temperature is a relatively easy place for cells to live. All life on our planet is water-based and shared the same basic underlying life process; life almost certainly began in the ocean. Life and Earth have changed together, generation by generation, over some 4 billion years. Life on Earth is notable for both unity and diversity: DIVERSITY because there are perhaps 100 million different species (kinds) of living things on Earth; UNITY because each species shares the same underlying mechanisms for basic life processes. Despite their astonishing diversity in form and lifestyle, all species share the same underlying mechanisms for capturing and storing energy, manufacturing proteins, and transmitting information between generations. What does distinguish life from nonlife is the ability of living things to capture, store, and transmit energy – and the ability to reproduce. It would seem easy to differentiate between the living and nonliving components of the marine environment, but we cannot always see the difference in the brightly colored б░rockб▒ in a colony of small marine plants. The distinction between life and nonlife does not lie in composition or outward appearance but in the ability to manipulate energy. Worms, colorful crustaceans, seaweeds, microscopic creatures drifting with the currents, schools of fishes. Ecology; ENTROPY, ENVIRONMENT AND RESOURCES (Second Edition), M. Faber, H. Niemes, and G. Stephan ENERGY AND MARINE LIFE The most important part of the system is the flow of energy through living systems. At each step, energy is degraded (transformed into a less useful form). Preface to the Second Edition: This book has been used as a text in the Department of Economics at the University of Heidelberg (FRG) during the last decade and the University of Bern (Switzerland) during the last seven years. We therefore were glad when Dr. Muller of Springer-Verlag offered to publish a soft cover version of the second edition, to make the text economically more accessible to students. The idea that low-entropy matter-energy is the ultimate natural resource requires some explanation. This can be provided easily by a short exposition of the laws of thermodynamics in terms of an apt image borrowed from Georgescu-Roegen. Consider an hour glass. It is a closed system in that no sand enters the glass and none leaves. The amount of sand in the glass is constant—no sand is created or destroyed within the hour glass. This is the analog of the first law of thermodynamics: there is no creation or destruction of matter-energy. Although the quantity of sand in the hour glass is constant, its qualitative distribution is constantly changing: the bottom chamber is filling up and the top chamber becoming empty. This is the analog of the second law, that entropy (bottom-chamber sand) always increases. Sand in the top chamber (low entropy) is capable of doing work by falling, like water at the top of a waterfall. Sand in the bottom chamber (high entropy) has spent its capacity to do work. The hour glass cannot be turned upside down: waste energy cannot be recycled, except by spending more energy to power the recycle than would be reclaimed in the amount recycled. As explained above, we have two sources of the ultimate natural resource, the solar and the terrestrial, and our dependence has shifted from the former toward the latter. —Daly and Cobb, FOR THE COMMON GOOD STORAGE, EMERGY AND TRANSFORMITY "The literature on evaluation of nature is extensive, much of it reporting ways of estimating market values of the storehouses and flows in environmental systems. In recent approaches to environmental evaluation (Repetto 1992), monetary measures were sought for the storages of nature. Others have used the simple physical measures of stored resources, especially energy. "Shown in Figure 12.1 a is a storage of environmentally generated resources. Energy sources from the left are indicated with the circular symbol. Energies from sources are used in energy transformation processes to produce the quantities stored in the tank. Following the second law, some of the energy is degraded in the process and is shown as ''used energy'' leaving through the heat sink, incapable of further work. Also due to the second law the stored quantity tends to disperse, losing its concentration. It depreciates, with some of its energy passing down the depreciation pathway and out through the used energy heat sink. "To build and maintain the storage of available resources, work requiring energy use and transformation has to be done. Work is measured by the energy that is used up, but energy of one kind cannot be regarded as equivalent to energy of another kind. For example, one joule of solar energy has a smaller ability to do work then one joule of energy contained in coal, since the coal energy is more concentrated than the solar energy. A relationship between solar and coal energy could be calculated by determining the number of joules of solar energy required to produce one joule of coal energy. The different kinds of energy on earth are hierarchically organized with many joules of energy of one kind required to generate one joule of another type. To evaluate all flows and storages on a common basis, we use solar emergy (Odum 1986; Scienceman 1987) defined as follows: "Solar emergy is the solar energy availability used up directly and indirectly to make a service or product. Its unit is the solar emjoule. "Although energy is conserved according to the first law, according to the second law, the ability of energy to do work is used up and cannot be reused. By definition, solar emergy is only conserved along a pathway of transformations until the ability to do work of the final energy remaining from its sources is used up (usually in interactive feedbacks). "Solar transformity is defined as follows: "Solar transformity is the solar emergy required to make one joule of a service or product. Its unit is solar emjoules per joule. " [p.p. 201-203] ECOLOGY: THE EARTH AS A SYSTEM by James Grier Miller and Jessie L. Miller, University of California at Santa Barbara ENERGY AND MARINE LIFE The most important part of the system is the flow of energy through living systems. At each step, energy is degraded (transformed into a less useful form). Ecology is the science of the interactions of living organisms with each other The planet Earth is a mixed living and nonliving system. It is the suprasystem of an supranational systems as well as the total ecological system, with all its living and nonliving components. The Earth is studied in this article in terms of a general theory of all concrete systems, with special attention to the important subset of living systems. The Earth is an open system, interacting with its atmosphere and with matter and energy in space. Its systemwide processes and the processes of its various components, as well as their variables and indicators, are discussed. In the light of known facts about the Earth as a system, consideration is given to future worldwide problems which must be dealt with by human planners and statesmen. KEY WORDS: Earth, suprasystem of supranational systems and total ecological systems, all living systems, nonliving systems, all subsystems, worldwide policy. THE CONCEPT OF INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY. E. Graedel, Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies, Inc., Murray Hill, New Jersey Abstract The term industrial ecology was conceived to suggest that industrial activity can be thought of and approached in much the same way as a biological ecosystem and that in its ideal form it would strive toward integration of activities and cyclization of resources, as do natural ecosystems. Beyond this attractive but fuzzy notion, little has been done to explore the usefulness of the analogy. This paper examines the structural framework of biological ecology and the tools used for its study, and it demonstrates that many aspects of biological organisms and ecosystems (for example, food webs, engineering activities, community development) do have parallels in industrial organisms and ecosystems. Some of the tools of biological ecology appear to be applicable to industrial ecology, and vice versa. In a world in which no biological ecosystem is free of human influence and no industrial ecosystem is free of biological influence, it is appropriate to abandon the artificial division between the two frameworks and develop a new synthesis—Earth system ecology—as the logical construct for all of Earth''s ecosystems. Acronyms Terms Primary Productivity ENERGY AND MARINE LIFE The most important part of the system is the flow of energy through living systems. At each step, energy is degraded (transformed into a less useful form). Food Producers assemble food molecules by using energy from the sun (photosynthesis) or from energy-rich inorganic molecules (chemosynthesis). Photosynthesis: in photosynthesis, energy from sunlight is used to bond six separate carbon atoms from carbon dioxide into a single energy-rich, six carbon molecule (the sugar glucose. The pigment chlorophyll absorbs and briefly stores the light energy needed to drive the reaction. Water is broken down in the process, and 6 oxygen is released. Chemosynthesis Primary Productivity Typically, oceanic primary productivity is expressed in grams of carbon bound into organic material per square meter of ocean surface area per year from CO2. Primary producers – autotrophs – are organisms that synthesize food from inorganic substances by photosynthesis and chemosynthesis. A general trophic pyramid: Phytoplancton 10,000 kg of primary producers Zooplankton (primary consumers 1,000 Small fishes and larvae (consumers) 100 Mid-size fishes (consumers) 10 Tuna (top consumers) -1 Feeding (Trophic) Relationships Producers and heterotrophs (consumers) interact in oftencomplex energy relationships called food webs. Autotrophs Heterotrophs Trophic pyramid Food web Biology: The Study of Life http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ466023&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ466023 - An Introduction to Biological Oceanography Define ecology. Ecology is the study of the interactions between living organisms and their biotic and abiotic environments. Ecology is therefore the study of the relationship of plants and animals to their physical and biological environment. The physical environment includes light and heat or solar radiation, moisture, wind, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients in soil, water, and atmosphere. The biological environment includes organisms of the same kind as well as all other plants and animals that cohabit the same environmental region, as well as (in some cases) nearby regions. Because of the diverse approaches required to study organisms in their environment, ecology draws upon such fields as climatology, hydrology, oceanography, physics, chemistry, geology, and soil analysis. To study the relationships between organisms, ecology also involves such disparate sciences as animal behavior, taxonomy, physiology, and mathematics. An increased public awareness of environmental problems has made ecology a common but often misused word. It is confused with environmental programs and environmental science (see Environment). Although the field is a distinct scientific discipline, ecology does indeed contribute to the study and understanding of environmental problems. The term ecology was introduced by the German biologist Ernst Heinrich Haeckel in 1866; it is derived from the Greek oikos ("household"), sharing the same root word as economics. Thus, the term implies the study of the economy of nature. Modern ecology, in part, began with Charles Darwin. In developing his theory of evolution, Darwin stressed the adaptation of organisms to their environment through natural selection. Also making important contributions were plant geographers, such as Alexander von Humboldt, who were deeply interested in the "how" and "why" of vegetational distribution around the world. Define biotic factors and describe their effects on ecological interactions. Biotic factors are also know as biotic interactions, and include all the interrelations between and organism and other living organisms around it. Examples of biotic interrelationships include symbiotic relationships (predation, parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism), competition (interspecific and intraspecific competition), scavengers, and decomposers. Biotic factors are all the living orgnisms in the environment and their effects, both direct and indirect, on other living things. Biotic factors exist only in the biosphere, which goes from the ocean floor to the highest point in the atmosphere where life exists (about 20 km). Autotrophs are the lowest level of producers. They make their own food using carbon dioxide. Most, called phototrophs, carry on photosynthesis. A few, called chemotrophs, carry on chemosynthesis. These are the only organisms that can make their own food. Heterotrophs cannot make their own food; they must eat other organisms to obtain nutrients. They are classified as herbivores, carnivores (predators or scavengers), omnivores, or saprobes, according to what thay eat and how they obtain food. Herbivores eat only plants (phototrophs). Carnivores eat other animals. Some are predators, and some are scavengers. Predators attack and kill their prey. Scavengers eat dead animals they find. Omnivores eat both plants and animals. Saprobes are decomposers. They break down the remains of dead plants and animals. Saprobes are usually bacteria and fungi. Symbiotic relationships are relationships in which two different organisms live in close association to the benefit of one or both. There are three types of symbiosis: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. In mutualism, both organisms benefit. In commensalism, one benefits and the other is not affected. In paasitism, one benefits and the other is harmed. The organism tht is harmed is the host. The organism that benefits is the parasite. Some parasites slightly harm the host. Some kill them. Some parasites absorb nutrients from the host that the host needs to survive. Symbiotic relationships are not always permanent. Also, it is sometimes unclear if an organism is helped or harmed by such a relationship. The role of a species in an ecosystem is its niche; how, when, and where it obtains nutrients, its reproductive behavior; and its direct and indirect effects on the environment and on other species. When the niches of two organisms overlap, there is competition. Competition increases as the degree of overlap increases, as resources decrease, and as population increases. When the competition is between organisms of different species, it is called interspecific competition. If the niches of two species are identical, then one of the species gets eliminated from the ecosystem, leaving the succesful species to occupy the niche. In some cases, the niches may change just enough that the two species coexist because they are able to partition resources. This is called resource partitioning. When the competition is between two organisms of the same species, it is called intraspecific competition. The organisms with the best adaptations are more likely to survive. Define abiotic factors and describe how each of the following abiotic factors affects ecological interactions: availability of water, changes in temperature, amount of light present in the environment, availability of organic and inorganic nutrients, and composition of soil. Abiotic Factors are physical factors of the environment, such as water, air, light or temperature. The availability of water varies from one region to another on the earths surface. Areas around the equator are hot and humid with heavy rainfall throughout the year. In regions like deserts their is a brief rainy season and almost no rain at all the rest of the year. Rainfall is abundant in regions where there is hot summers and cold winters. The plioar regions are cold, and precipation is in the form of snow. The changes in temperature varies with latitude and with altitude. As the altitude rises, the temperature falls. The warmest average temperature on the earths surface are around the equator. The north and south poles are the coldest regions on earth. The amount of light present in the environment depends on the amount of sunlight striking a given area of thee earth''s surface changes. Areas around the north and south ploes recieve light of the year weakest intensity. Areas around the equator about 12 hours of daylight throughout the year. At both, the north and south poles, the sun does not rise above the horizon for the six winter months every year. During the summer, the sun never sets. The amount of sunlight are caused by the daily rotation of the earth. The availability of inorganic and organic nutrients depends on soluble minerals in the rock that dissolve in water. When organisms die, their remains are mixed with the rock particles, adding organic matter to the soil. The composition of soil includes organic matter and various living organisms. The dark, rich organic matter is the topsoil is called humus. Beaneath the topsoil is a layer of subsoil. Marine Biology At such depths, sunlight is unable to penetrate and allow plants to photosynthesize. Thus, they cannot be the basis of the food chain as they are for us and for every other creature with which we normally come in contact. Animals at these depths depend on bacteria that are able to convert sulfur found in the vent''s fluids into energy through chemosynthesis. Larger animals then eat the chemosynthetic bacteria or eat the animals that eat the bacteria. In other vent creatures, the chemosynthetic bacteria live inside their bodies. Some organisms, such as the tubeworms, that live around the vents do not have a mouth or even a digestive tract as we do. The bacteria actually live inside their bodies and provide nutrients directly to the organisms'' tissues. Primary production Primary Productivity Typically, oceanic primary productivity is expressed in grams of carbon bound into organic material per square meter of ocean surface area per year from CO2. Producers: Ocean communities: Coral reef Kelp bed Shelf plankton Open Ocean Land communities Rain forest Temperate Forest Freshwater swamp Cropland The global productivity in marine ecosystems is 35-50 billion metric tons of carbon bound into carbohydrates per year. The global terrestrial productivity is similar at 50-70 billion metric tons. 1 metric ton = 1.1 ton. trophic pyramid Feeding ecology and trophic relationships Marine life -photos Environmental Biophysics and Molecular Ecology Life in water PHYSICAL FACTORS AFFECTING MARINE LIFE Limiting factor Light -photic zone -aphotic zone -Euphotic zone -disphotic zoneThe great bulk of the ocean lies in perpetual darkness. The upper part ogf the photic (lighted) zone sustains photosynthetic producers. Temperature -metabolic rate -ectothermic -endothermic External –internal temperature An organismбпs metabolic rate increases with temperature Dissolved Nutrients Salinity Dissolved gases Cold water can hold more gas in solution that warm water can. Acid-Base Balance Seawater tends to buffer solutions, preventing wide swings in pH (acid-base balance) Hydrostatic Pressure What is the Pelagic Zone Ecology Zones The ocean can be divided into many zones, each with its own dominant organisms. The bottom of the ocean is known as the benthic zone, while the pelagic zone extends from the ocean floor to the surface. It is divided according to its proximity to land and the depth of water. The neritic zone is that part of the pelagic zone which extends from the high tide line to the ocean bottom less than 200 m deep while water deeper than 200 m feet is referred to as the oceanic zone. The neritic zone can be partitioned based on tide levels. The upper band is known as the intertidal zone, encompassing the region from the wave splash zone to the low tide mark. The highest zone within the intertidal is known as the supralittoral zone and is the area above the high tide mark that receives only wave splash and sea-water mist. Some terrestrial organisms live here, such as saltwater-tolerant lichens. Below the supralittoral zone is the supralittoral fringe, or "splash zone", which receives a regular splashing from waves at high tide. The next zone is the midlittoral zone, which includes the majority of the intertidal zone and recieves periodic exposure and submersion by tides. The lowest zone, the infralittoral zone, includes the lowest levels exposed by extreme spring tides and extends into the subtidal zone, marking the beginning of the marine environment. The oceanic zone is subdivided into the epipelagic, mesopelagic, and bathypelagic zones. The epipelagic (euphotic) zone receives enough sunlight to support photosynthesis. The mesopelagic (disphotic) zone, where only small amounts of light penetrate, lies below and while 90% of the ocean lies in the bathypelagic (aphotic) zone into which no light penetrates. MARINE ENVIRONMENT AND PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY Classification of the Marine EnvironmentClassification of the Marine Environm Marine scientists divide the ocean environment into zones. Marine Zones are areas with uniform physical conditions. Common classifications are based on physical factors such as depth, light, temperature, salinity, etc. The most basic zonation is based on substrate: exclusively water environment (pelagic) and bottom interface (benthic). The pelagic zone is divided by depth into: nerithic zone, which includes the nearshore areas over the continental shelves; and the oceanic zone, the areas seaward of the continental shelves. The oceanic zone is further divided into epipelagic zone (same as photic zone), mesopelagic, bathypelagic, and abyssopelagic zones. Abyssopelagic zone is water in the deep ocean trenches. The last three zones are all at aphotic depths. The shallowest benthic environments (below the neritic zone) are: * Supralittoral - bottom substrate above high tides (not part of ocean). * Littoral - bottom substrate within the intertidal zone. * Sublittoral - bottom substrate below the lowest tides. Beyond the continental shelf break are: * the Bathyal zone (ocean bottom down to the abyssal plain or the average depth of the ocean floor), * the Abyssal zone (from 4,000 - 6,000 m depths), and * the Hadal zone representing the deepest ocean bottom in the deepest trenches. Physical factors affecting Marine Life Any factor of the physical environment that affects the survival of marine organisms are physical factors. These physical factors form barriers between various communities of marine organisms. The most important of these are: Light - the primary importance of light is photosynthesis, which will be discussed below. The depth of penetration of light will determine the birth of a food chain sequence. This also depends on the light wavelength, and turbidity. Hence most marine organisms live in the well-lighted neritic zone and in the epipelagic zone where food is abundant. Some deep water fish use light for body orientation (even dim light), feeding, and predator avoidance. Some marine organisms produce their own light by biochemical reaction, known as bioluminescence. Organisms typically living at depths within the aphotic zone, (or those that are active at night) such as squids, some fish and shrimps, are bioluminescent. They use light to see, to communicate, and to facilitate predation. Temperature - the metabolic rate of organisms increases with the temperature of their bodies. A 10 C increase doubles the metabolic rate. This is directly associated with the rate of energy production. Endothermic organisms control their own temperature from within, and ectothermic organisms depend on the temperature of the environment. Endotherms are mammals and birds. They can survive in a variety of environments because they can fine-tune their temperature to remain within a narrow range where metabolic rate is optimum. Ectotherms living in warm conditions are more active, have a higher reproduction rate, grow faster, but live shorter lives. Temperature range in the oceans is -50 to 40 C, except around hydrothermal vents where temperatures can be as high as 110 C. So in general, marine organisms live within a much narrower temperature range than land organisms. Temperature range on land is -40 to 50 C. Dissolved Nutrients - Nutrients are chemical substances that play vital role in the growth and general functioning of an organisms. In the oceans, nutrients in short supply are nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), and to a lesser extent Calcium and Silicon (limiting nutrients). Marine plants typically recycle these elements including Fe (iron), Cu (copper), Mg (magnesium), and Zn (zinc). Salinity - marine salinity varies from 6 - 40 ppt. This large range is controlled by evaporation rates, sea ice formation, and freshwater supply rates. The greatest impact of salinity variation is at the ocean surface, whereas deeper ocean salinity (below the halocline), is far less variable. Salinity affects the tissues of organisms thorough osmosis. Most marine organisms are isotonic and no special salinity problems are imposed on them. But marine fish (bony fish) is hypotonic, that is, their body fluids are less salty than seawater. Hence, they are constantly losing water and are threatened by dehydration. They overcome this by continuously drinking seawater and expelling the salts through their gills. They also produce highly concentrated urine in very small amounts in order to conserve water. Since salinity affects seawater density, it has an important effect on buoyancy of marine organisms. The average marine fish is denser (1.07) than seawater (1.025) but it can maintain its buoyancy with gas-filled swim bladders. They are constantly adjusting gas volumes as they change depth. Very fast swimmers (and benthic fish) lack swim bladders because they swim so fast that they cannot sink and the benthic ones do not change depths. Planktons store food as oil and have elaborate ornamentations to help them float. Whales and other large marine organisms store low-density fat to increase their buoyancy. Dissolved gases - gases dissolve more in cold water than in warm water. The two most important gases to marine organisms are: O2, and CO2. O2 is essential for respiration and CO2 for photosynthesis. O2 is less soluble is seawater and tends to be in abundance only in surface waters. Why? CO2 is more soluble in seawater and its concentration increases with depth. Why? P H - average seawater p H is ~ 8.0, and it is maintained within a narrow range by dissolved CO2 . The calcium carbonate compensation depth (CCD) is the dividing line between more alkaline seawater (8.3), and less alkaline seawater (7.6). The CCD is located between 3,500 m - 6,000 m and averages around 4,500 m depth. Below the CCD, calcium carbonate dissolves, so no CaCO3 shells are formed or survives. Limestone can only be preserved above the CCD. However, terrestrial CO2 pollution is increasing dissolved CO2 concentration in the oceans and the CCD is getting shallower. In the oceans, the organisms that capture solar energy and bind it into usable energy for their own use as well for the use of other organisms are known as phytoplanktons and seaweed. Planktons represent a community of organisms associated solely on their mode of locomotion. All planktons drift or swim very weakly, moving around with the currents or waves. Many can move vertically through the water column. In general, planktons live in the euphotic zone, in the upper layers of the open ocean down to the compensation depth. This is the depth to which 1% of surface light penetrates and photosynthetic organisms produce just enough carbohydrate to serve all the organisms'' needs (zero net productivity). Although the compensation depth is variable, it averages about 150 m from the ocean surface. Planktons are generally diverse, ranging from those with soft, gelatinous bodies with little or no hard parts, to those encrusted in hard parts. The common planktons are drifting jellyfish, arrowworms, single-celled organisms, some crustaceans, a few marine mollusks, some algae, etc. Hence both animals (zooplanktons) and plants are part of the plankton community. There are, at least, eight major types of phytoplanktons (the plant variety) responsible for the nearly all the oceans primary productivity. These phytoplanktons are mostly single-celled, microscopic organisms that include diatoms, dinoflagellates, cocclithophores, silicoflagellates, and extremely very minute varieties called nannoplanktons and picoplanktons. Primary Productivity In oceans, phytoplanktons and seaweed together are known as autotrophs. That is, organisms that make their own food. Such organisms are also known as primary producers. Organisms that do not make their own food but depend on other organisms to provide nutrients are heterotrophs. Heterotrophs obtain a share of the captured solar energy by consuming autotrophs as well as heterotrophs to support their daily activities. Heterotrophs include primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers. Primary consumers are herbivores (plant feeders) like manatees and zooplanktons, that feed directly on autotrophs. Secondary consumers then feed on primary consumers, etc. The natural chain of nutrient and energy interdependency obtained through food consumption or feeding is known as the food web or food chain. There are, at least, eight major types of phytoplanktons (the plant variety) responsible for the nearly all the oceans primary productivity. These phytoplanktons are mostly single-celled, microscopic organisms that include diatoms, dinoflagellates, cocclithophores, silicoflagellates, and extremely very minute varieties called nannoplanktons and picoplanktons. Primary Productivity In oceans, phytoplanktons and seaweed together are known as autotrophs. That is, organisms that make their own food. Such organisms are also known as primary producers. Organisms that do not make their own food but depend on other organisms to provide nutrients are heterotrophs. Heterotrophs obtain a share of the captured solar energy by consuming autotrophs as well as heterotrophs to support their daily activities. Heterotrophs include primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers. Primary consumers are herbivores (plant feeders) like manatees and zooplanktons, that feed directly on autotrophs. Secondary consumers then feed on primary consumers, etc. The natural chain of nutrient and energy interdependency obtained through food consumption or feeding is known as the food web or food chain. Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the process used by primary producers to manufacture their own food in the presence of light. These organisms possess a green dye, called chlorophyll, which is the molecule that traps sunlight and converts it to chemical energy in chemical bonds of substances called carbohydrates. When these bonds are broken, the energy is released and used in a variety of ways by organisms. Carbohydrates are assembled from small, simple, low-energy molecules such as water and CO2, to produce large, high-energy molecules (sugar) and oxygen. 6CO2 + 6H2O --> C6H12O6 + 6O2 These large, high-energy molecules are broken down inside living cells during cell respiration to sustain and maintain various organic functions. Photosynthetic marine organisms contribute 92 % to 98% of the oceans total primary productivity. Chemosynthesis This is another energy binding process performed by organisms that do not use light to harness energy for living organisms. Instead, because these organisms live in the aphotic zone, they capture energy from breaking down chemical bonds of simple molecules (such as hydrogen sulfide), and use the energy obtained to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. Chemosynthesis is estimated to contribute 2% to 8% of the ocean''s primary productivity. Marine bio PHYSICAL FACTORS AFFECTING MARINE LIFE The Deep Sea Antarctic Marine Ecosystem Marine biology Ocean Life THE OCEANS - STUDY GUIDE UNIT 1: HISTORY AND ORIGINS MAIN CONCEPTS TO LEARN 1. Summary statistics: Distribution of water; average depth, temperature and salinity of oceans. 2. Scientific Exploration бй from the United States Exploring Expedition to the present. 3. Understand the differences between scientific hypotheses, theories and laws. 4. Current hypotheses on the origins of the universe and stars. 5. Current hypotheses on the origins of Earth, ocean and life; age of Earth and time of life''s origin. 6. Latitude and longitude (how is the Earth divided; where are high, mid and low latitudes?). 7. Facts to know. UNIT 2: EARTH STRUCTURE, PLATE TECTONICS, AND OCEAN BASINS MAIN CONCEPTS TO LEARN Layered structure of Earth''s interior and how it is determined. Differences in composition, and relative density and ages of oceanic and continental crusts. Wegener and the hypothesis of continental drift. Understand how and where oceanic crust is formed and destroyed; processes occurring at plate boundaries. Characteristics of the three types of plate boundaries. Boundaries of the North and South American Plates. Further evidence in support of plate tectonics: hot spots, guyots and seamounts, and paleomagnetism. History of the current sea floor spreading phase since breakup of Pangaea (Fig. 3.14). Shape of ocean floor and its features, including: Characteristics and subdivisions of continental margins, both active and passive, Submarine canyons, Oceanic ridges, Island arcs and trenches, and Deep-ocean basins. Be able to sketch an east-west cross section of the Atlantic Ocean basin from the U.S. to Europe. Compare the U.S. east and west coast continental margins. What is the difference between active and passive margins? Be able to draw cross sections of these margins. Location and significance of hydrothermal vents. UNIT 3: SEDIMENTS MAIN CONCEPTS TO LEARN 1. How sediments are classified (by size and source). 2. Factors controlling the occurrence of terrigenous, biogenous, and hydrogenous sediments. 3. Especially, factors controlling the occurrence of calcium carbonate sediments and oozes. 4. Sources of terrigenous, biogenous, and hydrogenous sediments. 5. How oceanic sediments are collected and studied; importance of ocean sediments to Earth history. 6. Facts to know. UNIT 4: WATER MAIN CONCEPTS TO LEARN 1. Structure and polarity of the water molecule; types of bonding within and between water molecules. 2. Salinity: what it is, how it is measured; its six major components; sources of the salts; constant proportions. 3. Residence time vs. mixing time. 4. Factors controlling concentrations of dissolved gases (especially oxygen and carbon dioxide). 5. Importance of the carbon dioxide-carbonic acid system to the pH (acid-base balance) of seawater. 6. Thermal properties of water; its specific heat and thermostatic effects. 7. Differences between the physical properties of seawater vs. fresh water (i.e., effect of salinity). 8. Earth''s heat budget 9. Factors controlling the density of seawater; density structure of the ocean. 10. Other physical properties: refraction of light, light penetration, sound transmission in water vs. air. 11. Facts to know. UNIT 5: ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEAN CIRCULATION MAIN CONCEPTS TO LEARN 1. Uneven solar heating and effect on atmospheric circulation; cause of the seasons. 2. Understand the Coriolis effect and its influence on atmospheric circulation. 3. Be familiar with global wind patterns, monsoonal winds, and land and sea breezes. 4. Know how and where extratropical and tropical cyclones (hurricanes) form. 5. Surface (wind) currents: major gyres and their currents; Coriolis Effect and Ekman transport. 6. Forces acting on geostrophic currents. 7. Characteristics of western and eastern boundary currents (especially in the N. Atlantic); why these currents exist. 8. How upwelling (coastal and equatorial) and downwelling occur. 9. Causes and significance of El Niмуo and La Niмуa; crises caused by El Niмуo. 10. Factors controlling thermohaline (density-driven) circulation; major water masses. 11. Facts to know. UNIT 6: WAVES AND TIDES MAIN CONCEPTS TO LEARN 1. What is a wave; parts of a wave; water motion as a wave passes in open ocean. 2. Classification of waves and their disturbing forces. 3. Distinction between deep-water and shallow-water waves. 4. Characteristics of wind waves and factors affecting their maximum development. 5. Processes as waves approach shore. 6. Causes and characteristics of storm surges and seiches. 7. Tsunami and seismic sea waves - causes, characteristics, and effects. 8. Lunar and solar tides - their characteristics, causes and effects; spring and neap tides. 9. Tidal patterns - semidiurnal, diurnal, and mixed. 10. Tidal currents and amphidromic circulation. 11. Tides in confined regions (bays and river mouths); power from tides. 12. Facts to know. UNIT 7: COASTS MAIN CONCEPTS TO LEARN Classification, features and processes occurring on erosive and depositional coasts. Wave energy effects on shorelines. Movement of sediment by long shore currents. Beaches ("Rivers of Sand") and their features; high energy and low energy beaches. Other characteristics of depositional coasts (sand spits, barrier islands, etc.). Influence of organisms on coasts. Types and features of estuaries based on their origin and on volume of river flow - Comparison of east, west, and Gulf coastal regions. Modifications of coastal regions by human activity. Facts to know. UNIT 8: LIFE IN THE OCEAN MAIN CONCEPTS TO LEARN 1. Relationship between living things and energy; how organisms obtain and use energy. 2. Trophic relationships and trophic levels; food webs (what is the first level of all food chains?). 3. Dependence of marine life on physical factors, especially light, nutrients, dissolved gases and temperature. 4. How organisms and dissolved carbon dioxide affect the pH of seawater. 5. How physical factors in items 3 and 4 above vary with depth in the ocean. 6. Classifications of the marine environment based on light and location. 7. System of biological classification; how organisms are named. 8. Communities of organisms and factors affecting their location, composition, and distribution. 9. Mass extinctions - disappearance of many life forms. 10. Facts to know. UNIT 9: PELAGIC COMMUNITIES MAIN CONCEPTS TO LEARN Differences between pelagic and benthonic community. Differences between planktonic and nektonic Planktonic autotrophs Zooplankton and relationship with phytoplankton Nektonic mollusks and arthropods. primary productivity and marine food chains Classification, characteristics, and life styles of fishes. Classifications, characteristics, and life styles of amphibians, marine reptiles and marine birds. Classifications, characteristics, and life styles of marine mammals. Facts to know. UNIT 10: BENTHIC COMMUNITIES MAIN CONCEPTS TO LEARN Communities of organisms and factors affecting their location, composition, and distribution. Examples and characteristics of important marine communities: intertidal (rocky, beach, salt marshes and estuaries), deep-sea floor, and hydrothermal vent Evolution of reef shapes Corals as reef builders; types of reefs Facts to know. UNIT 11: USES AND ABUSES OF THE OCEAN MAIN CONCEPTS TO LEARN 1. Physical resources from seawater and the sea floor - economic value and uses. 2. Biological resources from the sea - types and yields. 3. Use of the ocean for transportation and recreation. 4. Major types of pollution, their causes and effects. 5. How pollutants are "amplified" up the food web. 6. Global changes - ozone depletion and warming. 7. The lesson from Easter Island. 8. Exclusive Economic Zone 9. Facts to know. Ocean life Life - Jonathan P. Ricardo S. Casey G. Marine Environment Nature of the marine environment CLASSIFICATION OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Zones The marine environtments populated by marine life may be classified by physical characteristics. -pelagic zone -neritic zone -oceanic zone -epipelagic zone -mezopelagic zone -bathypelagic zone -abyssopelagic zone -benthic Littoral zonesubralittoral zone Sublitoral zone - inner and outer sublitoral - -bathyal zone - Abyssal zone - -hadal zone CLASSIFICATION OF OCEANIC LIFE Taxonomy --artifical system of classification -natural system of classification Kingdoms Hierarchy Linneus system Marine organisms are naturally classified by their physical characteristics and by the degree to which they resemble other organisms. Names Genus (generic name) and specific names The modern system of biological classification MARINE COMMUNITIES Population Organisms are distributed throughout the marine environtment in specific communities – groups of interacting producers, consumers, and recyclers that share a common living space. Habitat Niche Competition Members of the same population Members of the different population Population density Species diversity Change in marine community Climax community Succession MASS EXTINCTIONS Comets or asteroid strike may be responsible in Triassic and Cretaceous period for mass extinctions Marine communities change as time passes slowly growing or shrinking and sometimes disappearing catastrophically The six Greats Mass Extinctions Late Ordovician Period 435 MA (million years) percentage of marine extinctions families 27, genera 57) Late Devonian 365MA percentage of marine extinctions families 19, genera 50) Late Permian 245 MA percentage of marine extinctions families 57, genera 83) Late Triassic 220 MA percentage of marine extinctions families 23, genera 48) Late Cretaceous 65 MA percentage of marine extinctions families 17, genera 50) Late Eocene 35 Ma percentage of marine extinctions families 2, genera 16) Source: C.Sagan and A.Druyan, Comet Elements of marine ecology Marine life by James.L.Sumich and John F. Morrissey Ocean zones Epipelagic Zone - The surface layer of the ocean is known as the epipelagic zone and extends from the surface to 200 meters (656 feet). It is also known as the sunlight zone because this is where most of the visible light exists. With the light come heat. This heat is responsible for the wide range of temperatures that occur in this zone. Mesopelagic Zone - Below the epipelagic zone is the mesopelagic zone, extending from 200 meters (656 feet) to 1000 meters (3281 feet). The mesopelagic zone is sometimes referred to as the twilight zone or the midwater zone. The light that penetrates to this depth is extremely faint. It is in this zone that we begin to see the twinkling lights of bioluminescent creatures. A great diversity of strange and bizarre fishes can be found here. Bathypelagic Zone - The next layer is called the bathypelagic zone. It is sometimes referred to as the midnight zone or the dark zone. This zone extends from 1000 meters (3281 feet) down to 4000 meters (13,124 feet). Here the only visible light is that produced by the creatures themselves. The water pressure at this depth is immense, reaching 5,850 pounds per square inch. In spite of the pressure, a surprisingly large number of creatures can be found here. Sperm whales can dive down to this level in search of food. Most of the animals that live at these depths are black or red in color due to the lack of light. Abyssopelagic Zone - The next layer is called the abyssopelagic zone, also known as the abyssal zone or simply as the abyss. It extends from 4000 meters (13,124 feet) to 6000 meters (19,686 feet). The name comes from a Greek word meaning "no bottom". The water temperature is near freezing, and there is no light at all. Very few creatures can be found at these crushing depths. Most of these are invertebrates such as basket stars and tiny squids. Three-quarters of the ocean floor lies within this zone. The deepest fish ever discovered was found in the Puerto Rico Trench at a depth of 27,460 feet (8,372 meters). Hadalpelagic Zone - Beyond the abyssopelagic zone lies the forbidding hadalpelagic zone. This layer extends from 6000 meters (19,686 feet) to the bottom of the deepest parts of the ocean. These areas are mostly found in deep water trenches and canyons. The deepest point in the ocean is located in the Mariana Trench off the coast of Japan at 35,797 feet (10,911 meters). The temperature of the water is just above freezing, and the pressure is an incredible eight tons per square inch. That is approximately the weight of 48 Boeing 747 jets. In spite of the pressure and temperature, life can still be found here. Invertebrates such as starfish and tube worms can thrive at these depths. layers of the ocean - http://www.seasky.org/deep-sea/ocean-layers.html Ocean - wiki Ocean Zones Classification of Living Things TAXONOMY Kingdom - Animalia Phylum/Division - Mollusca Class -Gastropoda Order: Caenogastropoda Family - Cerithideidae Genus - Cerithidea Species Name: Cerithidea scalariformis Common Name: Ladder Hornsnail see picture - http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/Cerith_scalar.htm#cladistic%20analysis Classification of Marine Species Ocean Life Ocean Life Marine biology Earth Science Ocean water Linnaeus system Biological classification The Linnaean System - Paleontology and Geology Glossary classifying living things The Linnaean Hierarchy The Linnaean System Linnaean taxonomy Introduction to the Biosphere Biological Classification Schemes and their Relation to Societies Marine Communities OCEANOGRAPHY & MARINE SCIENCE Habitat habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits") is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular animal or plant species.[1][2] It is the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the physical environment that surrounds (influences and is utilized by) a species population.[citation needed] The term "species population" is preferred to "organism" because, while it is possible to describe the habitat of a single black bear, we may not find any particular or individual bear but the grouping of bears that comprise a breeding population and occupy a certain biogeographical area. Further, this habitat could be somewhat different from the habitat of another group or population of black bears living elsewhere. Thus it is neither the species nor the individual for which the term habitat is typically used. A microhabitat is a physical location that is home to very small creatures, such as woodlice. Microenvironment is the immediate surroundings and other physical factors of an individual plant or animal within its habitat Ecological niche In ecology, a niche (pronounced /ˈniв░ʃ/ or /ˈnɪtʃ/)[1] is a term describing the relational position of a species or population in its ecosystem to each other; e.g. a dolphin will be in another ecological niche to one that travels in a different school.[1]. A shorthand definition of niche is how an organism makes a living. The ecological niche describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of resources and competitors (e.g., by growing when resources are abundant, and when predators, parasites and pathogens are scarce) and how it in turn alters those same factors (e.g., limiting access to resources by other organisms, acting as a food source for predators and a consumer of prey)[2]. Population Ecology Competition is a combat between individuals, groups, nations, animals, etc. for territory, a niche, or allocation of resources. It arises whenever two or more parties strive for a goal which cannot be shared. Competition occurs naturally between living organisms which co-exist in the same environment. For example, animals compete over water supplies, food, and mates, etc. Humans compete for water, food, and mates, though when these needs are met deep rivalries often arise over the pursuit of wealth, prestige, and fame. Business is often associated with competition as most companies are in competition with at least one other firm over the same group of customers. Competition may give incentives for self-improvement. For example, if two watchmakers are competing for business, they will hopefully lower their prices and improve their products to increase sales. If birds compete for a limited water supply during a drought, the more suited birds will survive to reproduce and improve the population. In ecology, the interaction between two or more organisms, or groups of organisms, that use a common resource in short supply. There can be competition between members of the same species and competition between members of different species. Competition invariably results in a reduction in the numbers of one or both competitors, and in evolution contributes both to the decline of certain species and to the evolution of adaptations. The resources in short supply for which organisms compete may be obvious things, such as mineral salts for animals and plants, or light for plants. However, there are less obvious resources. For example, competition for suitable nesting sites is important in some species of birds. Competition results in a reduction in breeding success for one or other organism(s). Because of this it is one of the most important aspects of natural selection, which may result in evolutionary change if the environment is changing. Competition also results in the distribution of organisms we see in habitats. It is believed that organisms tend to occur where the pressures of competition are not as great as in other areas. In agriculture cultivation methods are designed to reduce competition. For example, a crop of wheat is sown at a density that minimizes competition within the same species. The plants are grown far enough apart to reduce competition between the roots of neighbouring wheat plants for soil mineral nutrients. The spraying of the ground to kill weeds reduces competition between the wheat and weed plants. Some weeds would grow taller than the wheat and deprive it of light. POPULATION ECOLOGY Species diversity Species diversity refers to the number and distribution of species in one location. Simply the measure of the number of different species within a given area. Humans have a huge effect on species diversity; the main reasons are: - Destruction, Modification, and/or Fragmentation of Habitat - Introduction of Exotic Species - Overharvest - Global Climate Change Species richness is the number of different species in a given area. It is represented in equation form as S. Typically, species richness is used in conservation studies to determine the sensitivity of ecosystems and their resident species. The actual number of species calculated alone is largely an arbitrary number. These studies, therefore, often develop a rubric or measure for valuing the species richness number(s) or adopt one from previous studies on similar ecosystems. Climax community -http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0857880.html A climax community is one that has reached the stable stage. When extensive and well defined, the climax community is called a biome. Examples are tundra, grassland, desert, and the deciduous, coniferous, and tropical rain forests. Stability is attained through a process known as succession, whereby relatively simple communities are replaced by those more complex. Thus, on a lakefront, grass may invade a build-up of sand. Humus formed by the grass then gives root to oaks and pines and lesser vegetation, which displaces the grass and forms a further altered humus. That soil eventually nourishes maple and beech trees, which gradually crowd out the pines and oaks and form a climax community. In addition to trees, each successive community harbors many other life forms, with the greatest diversity populating the climax community. Similar ecological zonings occur among marine flora and fauna, dependent on such environmental factors as bottom composition, availability of light, and degree of salinity. In other respects, the capture by aquatic plants of solar energy and inorganic materials, as well as their transfer through food chains and cycling by means of microorganisms, parallels those processes on land. The early 20th-century belief that the climax community could endure indefinitely is now rejected because climatic stability cannot be assumed over long periods of time. In addition nonclimatic factors, such as soil limitation, can influence the rate of development. It is clear that stable climax communities in most areas can coexist with human pressures on the ecosystem, such as deforestation, grazing, and urbanization. Polyclimax theories stress that plant development does not follow predictable outlines and that the evolution of ecosystems is subject to many variables. Ecological succession What is "ecological succession"? http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_event Mass Extinctions Of The Phanerozoic Menu Biodiversity Lecture 3: Mass Extinctions The Sixth Extinction A Mathematical Model for Mass Extinction The Impact Theory of Mass Extinction New Theory On Largest Known Mass Extinction In Earth''s History